GASEOUS   EXCHANGE  AND   RESPIRATION--- BIOLOGY   FORM   FIVE.

INTRODUCTION:

Gas exchange is a biological process through which different gases are transferred in opposite directions across a specialised respiratory surface. Gases are constantly required and produced as a by-product of cellular and metabolic reactions so an efficient system for their exchange is extremely important. It is linked with respiration in animals, and both respiration and photosynthesis in plants.^[1]
In respiration, oxygen (O₂) is required to enter cells whilst waste carbon dioxide (CO₂) must be removed – the opposite is true for photosynthesis, where CO₂ enters plants and O₂ is released.^[1] The exchange of gases essentially occurs as a result of diffusion down a concentration gradient – gas molecules moving from an area of high concentration to low concentration.

Contents

• 1 Diffusion
• 2 In Humans
  • 2.1 Varying response
• 3 In Plants
• 4 In Fish
• 5 Summary of main systems
• 6 Other examples
• 7 See also
• 8 References

Diffusion

Diffusion follows Fick’s Law. It is a passive process (doesn’t require energy) affected by factors such as:

• The surface area available
• The distance the gas molecules must diffuse across
• The concentration gradient

Gases must first dissolve in a fluid in order to diffuse across a membrane therefore all gas exchange systems require a moist environment.^[2]
In single-celled organisms diffusion can occur straight across the cell membrane; as organisms increase in size so does the distance gases must travel across. Their surface-area-to-volume ratio also decreases. Diffusion alone is not efficient enough and specialised respiratory systems are required. This is the case with humans and fish where circulatory systems have evolved: These are able to transport the gases to and from the respiratory surface and maintain a continuous concentration gradient.^[3]

In Humans

Gas exchange in humans - between a capillary and an alveolus

Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported around the body in the blood – through arteries, veins and capillaries. They bind to haemoglobin in red blood cells although this is more effective with oxygen. Carbon dioxide also dissolves in the plasma or combines with water to form bicarbonate ions (HCO−
3). This reaction is catalysed by the carbonic anhydrase enzyme in red blood cells:^[4]

The main respiratory surface in humans are the alveoli.^[5] Alveoli are small air sacs branching off from the bronchioles in the lungs. They are one-cell thick and provide a moist and extremely large surface area for gas exchange to occur. Capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery run across the alveoli - they are also extremely thin so the total distance gases must diffuse across is only around 2-cells thick.
Inhaled oxygen is able to diffuse into the capillaries from the alveoli, while carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses in the opposite direction into the alveoli. The waste carbon dioxide can then be exhaled out of the body. Continuous blood flow in the capillaries as well as constant breathing maintains a steep concentration gradient.

Varying response

During physical exercise excess carbon dioxide is produced as a result of increased respiration: This must be removed and muscles and cells require increased oxygen. The body responds to this change by increasing the breathing rate, therefore maximizing the rate of possible gas exchange.^[6]

In Plants

Air diffuses directly into and out of plants through pores on the underside of leaves known as stomata. The stomata are controlled by guard cells (affected by osmosis and turgor pressure). When the guard cells are turgid, stomata are open. When they are flaccid, stomata close and gas exchange cannot take place. The main respiratory surface is the spongy mesophyll cells inside the leaf. They have large air spaces and therefore provide a large surface area for gas exchange. Leaves are also very thin so the diffusion distance is small.^[7]
During the day photosynthesis occurs at a faster rate than respiration so there is an overall uptake of CO₂ and release of O₂. At night (when there is no light available) this is reversed as photosynthesis stops and only respiration can take place.

In Fish

Fish must extract oxygen dissolved in water, not air, which has led to the evolution of gills and opercula. Gills are specialised organs containing filaments and lamellae – the lamellae contain capillaries and provide a large surface area and short diffusion distance as they are extremely thin.^[8]
Water is drawn in through the mouth and passes over the gills in one direction while blood flows through the lamellae in the opposite direction – this counter current maintains a steep concentration gradient. O₂ is able to continually diffuse down its gradient into the blood and CO₂ into the water.^[9]

Summary of main systems

	Large surface area	Short diffusion distance	Maintained concentration gradient
Human	Total alveoli = 70-100m2 [10]	Alveolus + Capillary = 2-cells	Constant blood flow in capillaries; breathing
Fish	Many lamellae and filaments per gill	Usually 1-cell	Counter-current flow
Plant	High density of stomata; air spaces within leaf	1-cell	Constant air flow

Other examples

Insects such as crickets do not have an inner skeleton so exchange gases across structures known as trachea and tracheoles: These are tubes that run directly into the body of the insect. Air enters the trachea through valves known as spiracles and diffusion can then occur straight into the respiring tissues.^[11]
Amphibians are able to use their skin as a respiratory surface, as well as having lungs and sometimes gills.

See also

• Respiratory system
• Ventilation (physiology)

References

1. "Gas exchange". Retrieved 19 March 2013.
2. Piiper J, Dejours P, Haab P & Rahn H (1971). "Oncepts and basic quantities in gas exchange physiology". Respiration Physiology 13: 292–304. doi:10.1016/0034-5687(71)90034-x.
3. Kety SS (1951). "The theory and applications of the exchange of inert gas at the lungs and tissues". Pharmacological Reviews 3: 1–41.
4. Raymond H & Swenson E (2000). "The distribution and physiological significance of carbonic anhydrase in vertebrate gas exchange organs". Respiration physiology 121: 1–12. doi:10.1016/s0034-5687(00)00110-9.
5. "Gas Exchange in humans". Retrieved 19 March 2013.
6. Wasserman K, Whipp B, Koyal S & Beaver W (1973). "Anaerobic threshold and respiratory gas exchange during exercise". Journal of Applied Physiology 35.
7. Casson S & Gray JE (2008). "Influence of environmental factors on stomatal development". New Phytologist 178: 9–23. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02351.x.
8. Newstead James D (1967). "Fine structure of the respiratory lamellae of teleostean gills". Cell and Tissue Research 79: 396–428. doi:10.1007/bf00335484.
9. Hughes GM (1972). "Morphometrics of fish gills". Respiration physiology 14: 1–25. doi:10.1016/0034-5687(72)90014-x.
10. Basset J, Crone C, Saumon G (1987). "Significance of active ion transport in transalveolar water absorption: a study on isolated rat lung". The journal of physiology 384: 311–324.
11. "Gas Exchange in Insects". Retrieved 19 March 2013.

Categories:

• Biological processes
• Gases

OEI 210 : TEACHING METHODS FOR ADULT LEARNERS / PEDAGOGY.

PEDAGOGY.

INTRODUCTION:

Pedagogy
Disciplines
Critical pedagogy
Research framework
Participant observation Holism Reflexivity Cultural relativism
Key theories
Critical pedagogy Anti-oppressive education Anti-bias curriculum Student-centred learning
Key concepts
Education Society Culture
v t e

Pedagogy (/ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi/ or /ˈpɛdəɡoʊdʒi/)^[1] is the science and art of education. Its aims range from the full development of the human being to skills acquisition. For example, Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching people as "critical pedagogy". In correlation with those instructive strategies the instructor's own philosophical beliefs of instruction are harbored and governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought.^[2][3][4] The teaching of adults, however, may be referred to as androgogy.

Contents

• 1 Etymology
• 2 Academic degrees
• 3 Pedagogues
• 4 References
• 5 Further reading

Etymology

The word comes from the Greek παιδαγωγέω (paidagōgeō); in which παῖς (país, genitive παιδός, paidos) means "child" and άγω (ágō) means "lead"; literally translated "to lead the child".

Academic degrees

An academic degree, Ped. D., Doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some U.S. universities to distinguished teachers (in the U.S. and U.K., earned degrees within the instructive field are classified as an Ed. D., Doctor of Education or a Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy). The term is also used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field (for instance, a Doctor of Music degree in piano pedagogy).

Pedagogues

Douris Man with wax tablet

The word pedagogue actually relates to the slave who escorts Roman children to school. In Denmark, a pedagogue is a practitioner of pedagogy. The term is primarily used for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education (such as kindergartens and nurseries) in Scandinavia. But a pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, e.g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages, and human resource management. These are often recognised as social pedagogues as they perform on behalf of society.
The pedagogue's job is usually distinguished from a teacher's by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social skills and cultural norms, etc. There is also a very big focus on care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion. The pedagogue's work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development. ^[5]
In Denmark all pedagogues are trained at a series of national institutes for social educators located in all major cities. The programme is a 3.5-year academic course, giving the student the title of a Bachelor in Social Education (Danish: Professionsbachelor som pædagog).^[6]
It is also possible to earn a master's degree in pedagogy/educational science from the University of Copenhagen. This BA and MA program has a more theoretical focus compared to the above mentioned Bachelor in Social Education.
In Hungary, the word pedagogue (pedagógus) is synonymous with teacher (tanár); therefore, teachers of both primary and secondary schools may be referred to as pedagogues, a word that appears also in the name of their lobbyist organizations and labor unions (e.g. Labor Union of Pedagogues, Democratic Labor Union of Pedagogues^[7]). However, undergraduate education in Pedagogy does not qualify students to become teachers in primary or secondary schools but makes them able to apply to be educational assistants. As of 2013, the 5-year training period was re-installed in place of the undergraduate and postgraduate division which characterized the previous practice.^[8]

References

1. "pedagogy noun - definition in British English Dictionary & Thesaurus - Cambridge Dictionary Online". Dictionary.cambridge.org. 2012-10-10. Retrieved 2012-10-29.
2. "Analysis of Pedagogy". Educ.utas.edu.au. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
3. Petrie et al. (2009). Pedagogy – a holistic, personal approach to work with children and young people, across services. p. 4.
4. Aarhus University Department of Education (DPU) - Research
5. Taipei Times Learning from Denmark
6. Educational Guide – Denmark Pædagog – UddannelsesGuiden.dk.
7. "Front Page". The Official Site of The Labor Union of Pedagogues. Labor Union of Pedagogues. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
8. "Ezekre a tanári szakokra jelentkeztek a legtöbben [English: These Teaching Areas Proved The Most Popular]". Eduline. 2013-04-19. Retrieved 27 May 2013.

Further reading

Main article: List of important publications in pedagogy

Find more about Pedagogy at Wikipedia's sister projects
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Media from Commons
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Learning resources from Wikiversity

Library resources about Pedagogy

Resources in your library

• Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of Education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Belkapp Press.
• Bruner, J. S. (1971). The Relevance of Education. New York, NY: Norton
• Bruner, J.S. (1986). A Study of Thinking. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
• Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., Austin, G. A. (1986). A study of thinking. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
• Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum
• Montessori, M. (1909). Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato All'educazione Infantile Nelle Case dei Bambini.
• Montessori, M. (1910). Antropologia Pedagogica.
• Montessori, M. (1921). Manuale di Pedagogia Scientifica.
• Montessori, M. (1934). Psico Geométria.
• Montessori, M. (1934). Psico Aritmética.
• Piaget, J. (1926). The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge & Kegan.
• Piaget, J. (1975/1936). "La Naissance de L'intelligence Chez L'enfant". ["Emergence of Intelligence in the Child"]. Neuchatel: Delachaux et Nieslé. Cited in Tomic, W. & Kingma, J (1996). Three Theories of Cognitive Representation and Their Evaluation Standards of Training Effect. Heerlson, The Netherlands: The Open University.
• Piaget, J (1975/1936). "La Naissance de L'intelligence Chez L'enfant". ["Emergence of Intelligence in the Child"] in Three Theories of Cognitive Representation and Their Evaluation Standards of Training Effect. Neuchatel: Delachaux et Nieslé/Heerlson, The Netherlands: Heerlson.
• Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz (1848) Pedagogics as a System. Translated 1872 by Anna C. Brackett, R.P. Studley Company
• Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz (1899). The philosophy of education. D. Appleton and Co.
• Vygotsky, D. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Wood, D. (1976). "The role of tutoring in problem solving". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17: 89–100.

[hide] v t e Issues in Freirian pedagogy Anti-oppressive education Banking Conscientization Critical consciousness Critical pedagogy Pedagogy of the Oppressed Popular education Praxis Teaching for social justice Youth empowerment

Categories:

• Educational psychology
• Pedagogy

OEI 208 : TEACHING PRACTICE.

TEACHING METHOD.

INTRODUCTION:

A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction. Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or combinations of these. The choice of teaching method or methods to be used depends largely on the information or skill that is being taught, and it may also be influenced by the aptitude and enthusiasm of the students.

Contents

• 1 Methods of instruction
  • 1.1 Explaining
  • 1.2 Demonstrating
  • 1.3 Collaborating
  • 1.4 Learning by teaching
• 2 Evolution of teaching methods
  • 2.1 Ancient education
  • 2.2 Medieval education
  • 2.3 19th century - compulsory education
  • 2.4 20th century
• 3 See also
• 4 References
• 5 Further reading

Methods of instruction

Explaining

Main article: Lecture

Explaining, or lecturing, is the process of teaching by giving spoken explanations of the subject that is to be learned. Lecturing is often accompanied by visual aids to help students visualize an object or problem. Explaining may meet the needs of auditory or visual learning preferences^[clarify] but often fails to meet the needs of individuals with other learning preferences^[clarify], such as kinesthetic or social learners^[clarify].^{[citation needed]}

Demonstrating

Main article: Demonstration (teaching)

Demonstrating is the process of teaching through examples or experiments. For example, a science teacher may teach an idea by performing an experiment for students. A demonstration may be used to prove a fact through a combination of visual evidence and associated reasoning.
Demonstrations are similar to written storytelling and examples in that they allow students to personally relate to the presented information. Memorization of a list of facts is a detached and impersonal experience, whereas the same information, conveyed through demonstration, becomes personally relatable. Demonstrations help to raise student interest and reinforce memory retention because they provide connections between facts and real-world applications of those facts. Lectures, on the other hand, are often geared more towards factual presentation than connective learning.

Collaborating

Main article: Collaboration

Collaboration allows students to actively participate in the learning process by talking with each other and listening to other points of view. Collaboration establishes a personal connection between students and the topic of study and it helps students think in a less personally biased way. Group projects and discussions are examples of this teaching method. Teachers may employ collaboration to assess student's abilities to work as a team, leadership skills, or presentation abilities.^[1]
Collaborative discussions can take a variety of forms, such as fishbowl discussions. After some preparation and with clearly defined roles, a discussion may constitute most of a lesson, with the teacher only giving short feedback at the end or in the following lesson.

Learning by teaching

Main article: Learning by teaching

In this teaching method, students assume the role of teacher and teach their peers. Students who teach others as a group or as individuals must study and understand a topic well enough to teach it to their peers. By having students participate in the teaching process, they gain self-confidence and strengthen their speaking and communication skills.

Evolution of teaching methods

Ancient education

About 3000 BC, with the advent of writing, education became more conscious or self-reflecting, with specialized occupations such as scribe and astronomer requiring particular skills and knowledge. Philosophy in ancient Greece led to questions of educational method entering national discourse.
In his literary work The Republic, Plato described a system of instruction that he felt would lead to an ideal state. In his dialogues, Plato described the Socratic method, a form of inquiry and debate intended to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas.
It has been the intent of many educators since, such as the Roman educator Quintilian, to find specific, interesting ways to encourage students to use their intelligence and to help them to learn.

Medieval education

Comenius, in Bohemia, wanted all children to learn. In his The World in Pictures, he created an illustrated textbook of things children would be familiar with in everyday life and used it to teach children. Rabelais described how the student Gargantua learned about the world, and what is in it.
Much later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his Emile, presented methodology to teach children the elements of science and other subjects. During Napoleonic warfare, the teaching methodology of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi of Switzerland enabled refugee children, of a class believed to be unteachable^{[by whom?]}, to learn. He described this in his account of an educational experiment at Stanz.^{[citation needed]} He felt the key to have children learn is for them to be loved.^{[citation needed]}

19th century - compulsory education

Main article: Prussian education system

The Prussian education system was a system of mandatory education dating to the early 19th century. Parts of the Prussian education system have served as models for the education systems in a number of other countries, including Japan and the United States. The Prussian model required classroom management skills to be incorporated into the teaching process.^[2]

20th century

Newer teaching methods may incorporate television, radio, computer, and other modern devices. Some educators^[who?] believe that the use of technology, while facilitating learning to some degree, is not a substitute for educational methods that encourage critical thinking and a desire to learn. Inquiry learning is another modern teaching method.

See also

• Educational psychology
• Educational philosophy
• Example Choice
• Lesson plan
• Teacher
• Case method
• Business game
• Experiential learning
• Learning
• Effective schools

References

1. "What Is the Collaborative Classroom?". Retrieved 14 December 2012.
2. Gatto, John Taylor. A Different Kind of Teacher: Solving the Crisis of American Schooling. Berkeley Hills Books. ISBN 1-893163-21-0.

Further reading

• Paul Monroe, A Text-Book in the History of Education, Macmillan, 1915.
• Gilbert Highet, The Art of Teaching, Knopf, 1950.

[show] v t e Topics in education

Categories:

• Infographics
• Teaching

OEI 2010 : TEACHING METHODS FOR ADULT LEARNERS/ ANDRAGOGY

ANDRADOGY 

Andragogy consists of teaching strategies focused on adults. It is often interpreted as the process of engaging adult learners with the structure of learning experience.

Contents

• 1 Definitions
• 2 History
• 3 Academic Discipline
• 4 Critique
• 5 References
• 6 Further reading

Definitions

Two primary understandings of ‘andragogy’ currently exist:

1. The science of understanding (= theory) and supporting (= practice) lifelong and life-wide education of adults.
2. In the tradition of Malcolm Knowles, a specific theoretical and practical approach, based on a humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous learners and teachers as facilitators of learning.

Interpreted broadly throughout the academic literature, the term also invites such definitions as ‘adult education practice,’ ‘desirable values,’ ‘specific teaching methods,’ ‘reflections,’ and ‘academic discipline,' with many authors claiming it to be better than traditional adult education.
The term has been used by some to allow discussion of contrast between self-directed and 'taught' education.^[1]

History

Originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833, andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy and was popularized in the US by American educator Malcolm Knowles. Knowles asserted that andragogy (Greek: "man-leading") should be distinguished from the more commonly used pedagogy (Greek: "child-leading").
Knowles collected ideas about a theory of adult education from the end of WWII until he was introduced to the term "andragogy." In 1966, Knowles met Dusan Savicevic in Boston. Savicevic shared the term andragogy with Knowles, and explained how it was used in the European context. In 1967, Knowles made use of the term "androgogy" to explain his theory of adult education. Then, after consulting Merriam-Webster, he corrected the spelling of the term to "andragogy" and continued to make use of the term to explain his collection of ideas about adult learning.
Knowles' theory can be stated with six assumptions related to motivation of adult learning:^[2][3]

1. Need to Know: Adults need to know the reason for learning something.
2. Foundation: Experience (including error) provides the basis for learning activities.
3. Self-Concept: Adults need to be responsible for their decisions on education; involvement in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.
4. Readiness: Adults are most interested in learning subjects having immediate relevance to their work and/or personal lives.
5. Orientation: Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.
6. Motivation: Adults respond better to internal versus external motivators.

In most countries of Europe the Knowles discussion played, at best, a marginal role. ‘Andragogy’ was, from 1970 on, connected with the in existence coming academic and professional institutions, publications, programs, triggered by a similar growth of adult education in practice and theory as in the USA. ‘Andragogy’ functioned here as a header for (places of) systematic reflections, parallel to other academic headers like ‘biology’, ‘medicine’, ‘physics’. Examples of this use of andragogy are the Yugoslavian (scholarly) journal for adult education, named ‘Andragogija’ in 1969; and the ‘Yugoslavian Society for Andragogy’; at Palacky University in Olomouc (Czech republic) in 1990 the 'Katedra sociologie an andragogiky' was established. Also Prague University has a ‘Katedra Andragogiky’; in 1993, Slovenia’s ‘Andragoski Center Republike Slovenije' was founded with the journal ‘Andragoska Spoznanja’; in 1995, Bamberg University (Germany) named a ‘Lehrstuhl Andragogik’.
On this formal level ‘above practice’ and specific approaches, the term andragogy could be used relating to all types of theories, for reflection, analysis, training, in person-oriented programs as well as human resource development.

Academic Discipline

In the field of adult education during recent decades, a process of growth and differentiation emerged as a scholarly and scientific approach, andragogy. Andragogy refers to the academic discipline(s) within university programs that focus on the education of adults; andragogy exists today worldwide. The term refers to a new type of education which was not qualified by missions and visions, but by academic learning including: reflection, critique,and historical analyses.
Dusan Savicevic, who provided Knowles with the term andragogy, explicitly claim andragogy as a discipline, the subject of which is the study of education and learning of adults in all its forms of expression’ (Savicevic, 1999, p. 97,^[4] similarly Henschke, 2003,^[5] Reischmann, 2003^[6]).

Critique

Knowles himself changed his position on whether andragogy really applied only to adults and came to believe that "pedagogy-andragogy represents a continuum ranging from teacher-directed to student-directed learning and that both approaches are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation." ^[7][8]
J.R. Kidd goes further by claiming that principles of learning have to be applied to lifelong development. He suggested that building a theory on adult learning would be meaningless, as there is no real basis for it. P. Jarvis even implies that andragogy would be more the result of an ideology than a scientific contribution to the comprehension of the learning processes.^[9]

References

1. Hansman (2008) Adult Learning in Communities of Practice: Situating Theory in Practice
2. "Instructional Design: Theories - Andragogy (M. Knowles)". Encyclopedia of Psychology. Retrieved 2011-05-16.
3. "andragogy @ the informal education homepage". the encyclopaedia of informal education. Retrieved 2011-05-17.
4. Savicevic, Dusan (1999): Understanding Andragogy in Europe and America: Comparing and Contrasting. In: Reischmann, Jost/ Bron, Michal/ Jelenc, Zoran (eds): Comparative Adult Education 1998: the Contribution of ISCAE to an Emerging Field of Study. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Slovenian Institute for Adult Education, p. 97-119.
5. Henschke, John (2003): Andragogy Website http://www.umsl.edu/~henschkej/
6. Reischmann, Jost (2003): Why Andragogy? Bamberg University, Germany http://www.andragogy.net
7. Merriam, et al (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide, p. 87
8. (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner 2007, p. 87)
9. Smith, M. K. (1996; 1999, 2010) ‘Andragogy’, the encyclopaedia of informal education.

Further reading

• Knowles, Malcolm; Holton, E. F., III; Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (6th ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier. ISBN 0750678372. LCCN 2004024356.
• Knowles, Malcolm (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Wilton, Connecticut: Association Press. ISBN 0695814729. LCCN 80014344.
• Loeng, S. (2012). Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy – an andragogical pioneer. Studies in Continuing Education, doi:10.1080/0158037X.2012.749850
• Merriam, Sharran B.; Caffarella, Rosemary; Baumgartner, Lisa (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0787975885. LCCN 2006019145.
• Reischmann, Jost (2005): Andragogy. In: English, Leona (ed): International Encyclopedia of Adult Education. London: Palgrave Macmillan. S. 58-63. (.pdf-download)
• Roberts, Michael (2007). "Applying the Andragogical Model of Adult Learning: A Case Study of the Texas Comptroller's Fiscal Management Division". Applied Research Project. Texas State University.
• Smith, M. K. (1996; 1999) 'Andragogy', in the Encyclopaedia of Informal Education.
• Sopher, M. J. (2003). An historical biography of Malcolm S. Knowles: The remaking of an adult educator (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Continuing, Adult and Vocational Education.
• Thorpe, Mary; Edwards, Richard; Hanson, Ann (1993). Culture and processes of adult learning. Routledge.

Categories:

• Adult education
• Philosophy of education