Budgeting

A budget is a plan for your future income and expenditures that you can use as a guideline for spending and saving. Although many Americans already use a budget to plan their spending, the majority of Americans also routinely spend more than they can afford. The key to spending within your means is to know your expenses and to spend less than you make. A good monthly budget can help ensure you pay your bills on time, have funds to cover unexpected emergencies, and reach your financial goals.
Most of the information you need is already at your fingertips. To create or rework your budget, follow the simple steps outlined below to get a clear picture of your monthly finances. You can also use our free online budgeting calculators below to budget for certain specific purchases or events.
1. Add Up Your Income
To set a monthly budget, you first need to determine how much income you have. Using the worksheet at the bottom of this page, write a dollar figure next to each relevant income source. Make sure you include all sources of income such as salaries, interest, pension and any other income–including a spouse's income if you're married.
If you get a salary, be sure to use your take-home pay rather than your gross pay. Taxes are usually taken out automatically, but if they're not, remember to include them as another expense. If you receive money from somewhere not listed, enter the source along with the amount under "other income."
2. Estimate Expenses
The best way to do this is to keep track of how much you spend for one month. The worksheet below divides spending into fixed and flexible expenses. Fixed expenses are those that generally do not change from month to month, such as rent and insurance payments. Flexible expenses are those that do change from month to month, such as food or entertainment. If some of your expenses for one or more categories change significantly each month, take a three-month average for your total.
3. Figure Out The Difference
Once you've totaled up your monthly income and your monthly expenses, subtract the expense total from the income total to get the difference. A positive number indicates that you're spending less than you earn--congratulations. A negative number indicates that your expenses are greater than your income. This means you will need to trim your expenses in order to begin living within your means.
Well done–you've created a budget. The next step is to track your budget over time to make sure you're sticking to it. If you find you aren't able to follow your budget successfully, it may mean that your plan isn't flexible enough. It can take revisiting your budget a few times to find the balance that works for you.

How to Avoid Laughing at Your Own Jokes

Edited by Wes Platt, Jonlandrum, mikki, Ben Rubenstein and 32 others

Ever spoiled a joke by laughing? Can't get through your punchline without rolling on the floor? Then read on! Laughing, although fun, can not only have the effect of being a socially crippling ability, but also one that could lead to great things. A person can tell a lot about another based on how they laugh, not just on what they say. Follow these steps and you are almost guaranteed a chuckle, although getting a laugh may require more practice.

Edit Steps

1. 
   1
   Find a joke that makes you laugh, and make sure that it is easy to understand if you want to tell it to younger people.
2. 
   2
   Tell the joke repeatedly to people who won't get it. (little brothers or sisters and cats both work really well!)
3. 
   3
   Don't act like you've practiced the joke! You should know it well, but don't recite it.
4. 
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   Think about something not funny. (like how your English teacher gave you a C for a 80.8%)
5. 
   5
   Practice in front of a mirror or your friends, as this will switch focus from the punchline to your delivery.
6. 
   6
   When you're alone, just walk around the house repeating it as though you're talking in a normal conversation, to make the words seem natural. You will have said it enough times to not think of it as "the funniest joke ever".

Edit Tips

• Even though a joke is supposed to be funny, treat it instead like you're telling about your last (fairly boring) trip to the grocery store. The more nonchalant you tell it, the funnier it will be to your unsuspecting audience.
• Don't build up the joke too much, make it as unexpected and natural as possible.
• Also, try not to have any kind of expression so that when you get to the Punch Line, your audience is unexpected. It makes them laugh harder!
• If you're doing an impression, act it out and keep your mind focused on the impression.
• If you say it to yourself over and over again, it may help you to not laugh. This is similar to saying the same joke over and over to friends.
• If you're telling jokes at a party or at a bar and you've got a dry sense of humor, you can almost certainly start to take a sip of your drink as the joke settles on your listeners. You come off looking centered and in control and even as if you're reloading for the next quip.
• If you tell it to yourself a lot you might think it is not very funny, therefore you won't laugh when you tell it. This will make it funnier, though it may make you like the joke less and thus tell it less often.
• Think about the people around you. It's easier to tell a joke to people you know than around strangers (such as trying to impress people at a party).
• Don't use a joke that's too long or you'll lose interest.

Edit Warnings

• Sometimes a joke is just INCREDIBLY funny and all you can do is make sure you don't laugh until you get the whole thing said and understood - because no one understands what you're saying when you laugh. You're allowed to join in if your listeners are rolling about on the floor, it's laughing alone because people didn't hear or understand you that's not the best.

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS STATEMENT ---- BY. MWL. JAPHET MASATU.

How to Write a Thesis Statement

Sample ThesisGetting it RightFinding the Perfect ThesisWriting it WellEnhancing a Thesis

Edited by Chris Hadley, BR, ClaytonB, Yellowkippy and 32 others

Whether you are writing a short essay or a doctoral dissertation, your thesis statement will arguably be the most difficult sentence to formulate. An effective thesis statement states the purpose of the paper and therefore functions to control, assert and structure your entire argument.^[1] Without a sound thesis, your argument may sound weak, lacking in direction and uninteresting to the reader.

EditSample Thesis

Sample Thesis Statement

EditMethod 1 of 4: Getting it Right

1. 
   1
   State your thesis statement correctly. A thesis statement conveys to the reader the points and/or arguments you wish to make in a paper.^[2] It serves as a road map by telling the reader the direction of your argument or analysis and how you will interpret the importance of the subject.^[3] In the most simple of terms, a thesis statement answers the question, "What is this paper about?" Additionally, a thesis statement,
   • Is an assertion, not a fact or observation.^[4] Facts are used within the paper to support your thesis.
   • Takes a stand, meaning it announces your position towards a particular topic.^[4]
   • Is the main idea and explains what you intend to discuss.^[4]
   • Answers a specific question and explains how you plan to support your argument.^[5]
   • Is debatable.^[5] Someone should be able to argue an alternate position, or conversely, support your claims.
2. 2
   Get the sound right. You want your thesis statement to be identifiable as a thesis statement. You do this by taking a very particular tone and using specific kinds of phrasing and words. Use words like "because" and language which is firm and definitive.
   • Example thesis statements with good statement language include:
     • "Because of William the Conqueror's campaign into England, that nation developed the strength and culture it would need to eventually build the British Empire."
     • "Facebook has significantly contributed to globalization, by allowing relationships and partnerships to develop despite national borders and timezones."
     • "Hemingway significantly changed literature by normalizing simplistic writing and frank tone."
3. 
   3
   Know where to place a thesis statement. Because of the role thesis statements play, they appear at the beginning of the paper, usually at the end of the first paragraph^[6] or somewhere in the introduction.^[7] Although most people look for the thesis at the end of the first paragraph, its location can depend on a number of factors such as how lengthy of an introduction you need before you can introduce your thesis or the length of your paper.^[8]
4. 
   4
   Limit a thesis statement to one or two sentences in length.^[2] Thesis statements are clear and to-the-point, which helps the reader identify the topic and direction of the paper, as well as your position towards the subject.

EditMethod 2 of 4: Finding the Perfect Thesis

1. 
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   Pick a topic that interests you. This must be the first step in writing your paper and your thesis statement because all direction of the paper will depend on what topic you are writing about. Unfortunately, you must ignore this step if the topic is decided for you.
2. 
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   Explore your topic. The goal of this step is to find a particular narrow subject in your topic which you can make an argument about. For example, take the topic of computers. There are many aspects of computers that can be expanded on such as hardware, software, and programming. However, vague topics like these do not make good theses. But something more narrow, such as the effects of Steve Jobs on the modern computer industry, allows for a much clearer focus.
3. 
   3
   Know the type, purpose, and audience of the paper. These are usually assigned by the instructor, but even if you get to choose them, you must understand that these will affect your thesis statement considerably. If you are writing a persuasive paper, your purpose will be to prove something to a specific group. If you are writing a descriptive paper, your purpose will be to describe something to a specific group. Each of these must be expressed in your thesis somehow.

EditMethod 3 of 4: Writing it Well

1. 
   1
   Keep your thesis statement narrow in scope. You should address a single issue in great detail so that your points can be fully supported in the body of the paper.^[4] Consider the following examples:
   • While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.^[3]
   • The primary problem of the American steel industry is the lack of funds to renovate outdated plants and equipment.^[4]
   • Hemingway's stories helped create a new prose style by employing extensive dialogue, shorter sentences, and strong Anglo-Saxon words.^[4]
2. 
   2
   Start with a question. Regardless of how complicated the subject is, almost any thesis can be constructed by answering a question.^[2] For example, pretend you are given the task of writing a report to the school board explaining why computers would be beneficial in fourth grade classrooms. Simply turn the assignment into a question, such as "What are the benefits of using computers in a fourth grade classroom?" and formulate a sentence that will serve as your thesis: "The potential benefits of using computers in a fourth grade classroom are...."
3. 
   3
   Follow a rigid structure. Knowing the basic formulas will not only keep your thesis within the acceptable length but it will also help you see how your entire argument should be organized.^[9] Your thesis should contain two parts:^[5]
   • A clear topic or subject matter
   • A brief summary of what you will say
   • Another way of looking at a thesis is as a formula, or a pattern, that comfortably holds your ideas:^[10]
     • [Something] [does something] because [reason(s)].
     • Because [reason(s)], [something] [does something].
     • Although [opposing evidence], [reasons] show [Something] [does something].
   • The last example includes a counter-argument, which complicates the thesis but strengthens the argument. In fact, you should always be aware of all counter-arguments against your thesis.^[11] Doing so will refine your thesis, and also force you to consider arguments you have to refute in your paper.
4. 4
   Write down your thesis.^[11] Writing down a preliminary thesis will get you on the right track and force you to think about it, develop your ideas further, and clarify the content of the paper. You will be able to think about your thesis logically, clearly, and concisely.
   • There are two schools of thought on thesis timing. Some people say you should not write the paper without a thesis in mind and written down, even if you have to alter it slightly by the end. The other school of thought says that you probably won't know where you're going until you get there, so don't write the thesis until you know what it should be. Do whatever seems best to you.

EditMethod 4 of 4: Enhancing a Thesis

1. 1
   Analyze your thesis statement once you think you have a final, or working, version. The point is to make sure you avoid making any mistakes that can weaken your thesis. To get a better idea of what to do and what to avoid, consider the following pointers:
   
   
   • Never frame your thesis as a question.^[11] The job of a thesis is to answer a question, not ask one.
   • A thesis is not a list.^[11] If you're trying to answer a specific question, too many variables will send your paper off-focus. Keep it concise and brief.
   • Never mention a new topic that you do not intend to discuss in the paper.^[12]
   • Do not write in the first person.^[13] Using sentences such as, "I will show...," is generally frowned upon by scholars.
   • Do not be combative.^[9] The point of your paper is to convince someone of your position, not turn them off, and the best way to achieve that is to make them want to listen to you. Express an open-minded tone, finding common ground between different views.
2. 2
   Realize that your thesis does not have to be absolute. Consider it a "working thesis" that's subject to change. As you write your paper you may find that your opinion changes or that your direction has veered slightly.^[5] So make sure to continuously re-read your thesis, comparing it to your paper and making the appropriate changes so the two match. Once your paper is finished, go back to your thesis and determine if it needs another revision.

Edit Video

Edit Tips

• Think of your thesis as a case a lawyer has to defend.^[11] A thesis statement should explain to your readers the case you wish to make and how you will accomplish that. You can also think of your thesis as a contract.^[1] Introducing new ideas the reader is not prepared for may be alienating.
• An effective thesis statement controls the entire argument.^[1] It determines what you cannot say. If a paragraph does not support your thesis, either omit it or change your thesis.

OGE 221: PHYSICAL RESOURCES ------ THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA.

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES OGE  221 PHYSICAL RESOURCES (II) GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY Reguli B. Mushy OGE  221 PHYSICAL RESOURCES (II) GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY Reguli B. Mushy Assistant Lecturer The Open University of Tanzania The Open University of Tanzania P. O. Box 23409, DAR ES SALAAM. Tel:  22-2668992/2668820 Fax: 22-2668759 E-mail: vc@out.ac.tz, deputyvc@out.ac.tz, registrar@out.ac.tz

OEP 309 / 509 : INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ----THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA.

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

OEP 309/502 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

                    

Imani M. Mwakamele

OCTOBER, 2012

INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE.

INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

Course Description

OEP 309/502 is a two unit course designed to; first and foremost, provide education students with basic knowledge of scientific research in education. It is aimed at providing students with competencies necessary to plan and conduct research in different areas of education including exploring problems and challenges facing education. In particular, the course touches upon the nature of research, ethics of educational research, research design issues, how to write a proposal; including review of literature, determining research population, sampling techniques and sample size, data collection and analysis, validity and reliability, and writing a research report. This course is studied by undergraduate students as OEP 309 and Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) students as OEP 502. For undergraduate students, this is an ELECTIVE course while for PGDE it is a CORE course.

There are two national contexts in which educational research is currently pursued. These are educational policy making and educational practice. Educational research is predominantly in 'basic' research and some are concerned mainly with theory building. The norms and the cultures of these two arenas will affect what (and to some extent how) research can be undertaken, how it is perceived and the ways in which it is used - or ignored. These two contexts (theory and practice) represent the two most common forces for doing educational research.

This course material is intended to address the following important questions:

• What does the term educational research mean?
• What are the major tasks of educational research?
• How is education research conducted?
• What are the successes of educational research?
• What are the failures of educational research?
• Why is educational research seen as less important?
• Would we miss educational research if it did not exist? and  finally
• How can we enhance the value of educational research?

Course Objectives

At the completion of this course, the students are expected to be able to:

1. Have a deep understanding and knowledge in research and scientific thinking.
2. Identify a research problem, methodologies and tools for research. Be able to generate knowledge and solve problems related to education.
3. Develop and write research proposals and plans.
4. Have skills in searching of scientific literature.
5. Conduct a research and simple field investigations.
6. Be capable of analyzing and interpreting data and on their basis draw conclusions.
7. Write and present a research report.

Mode of Delivery

This course will be taken by students at the Open University of Tanzania through distance learning commonly known as “SELF STUDY”. Thorough personal reading of the reference materials given in this study material will enable you to answer test and examination questions.

                       

Assessment

Timed Test: 30%

Annual Examination: 70%.

CONTENTS

1. Lecture One: Understanding Basic Research Concepts and its Characteristics...6

Ø      Meaning of research.

Ø      Research in education.

Ø      Scientific approach and common sense.

2. Lecture Two: Purpose and Functions of Research in Education………………..11

Ø      The Main Purpose and Functions of research in education.

Ø      Challenges/Problems of educational research.

3. Lecture Three: Selecting a Research Problem……………………………………..16 

Ø      What is a research problem?

Ø      Identifying the Sources of problems in research.

Ø       Stating the research problem.

4. Lecture Four: Quantitative and Qualitative approaches in Education Research………………………………...………………………………………………22

Ø      Quantitative approach.

Ø      Qualitative approach.

5. Lecture Five: Designing and Planning a Scientific Study ………………………30

Ø      What is a scientific study?

Ø      Research design.

Ø      Importance of research design.

Ø      Features of research design.

Ø      Designing and planning for a study.

6. Lecture Six: Research Tools and Collecting Data………..……………………….36

Ø      Questionnaires.

Ø      Interviews.

Ø      Observation.

Ø      Focus Group discussions.

Ø      Analyzing documents.

7. Lecture Seven: Population, Sample and Sampling Techniques………………42

Ø      Define population and sample.

Ø      Probability and Non probability Sampling.

Ø      Sampling methods/techniques.

Ø      Errors in sampling.

8. Lecture Eight: Reviewing Literature……………………………………….………54

Ø      What is Literature Review?

Ø      The purpose of literature review.

Ø      The Scope of Literature review.

Ø      Steps in carrying out literature review.

Ø      Sources of information.

Ø      Organizing the review chapter.

9. Lecture Nine: Developing  a Research Proposal………………..……………….60

Ø      Meaning of a research proposal.

Ø      The purpose and importance of research proposal.

Ø      Steps in developing a research proposal.

Ø      Components of a research proposal.

10. Lecture Ten: Data Analysis and Interpretation…………………………….……..72

Ø      What is Data analysis?

Ø      Stages for data analysis.

Ø      Interpreting data.

11. Lecture Eleven: Writing a Research Report……………………………………….76

Ø      Defining research report.

Ø      Purpose of writing a research report.

Ø      Characteristics of a good research report.

Ø      Format/Component of Research Report.

12. Lecture Twelve: Logistical and Ethical Issues in Educational Research….…..82

Ø      Logistical and ethical issues in Education Research.

Ø      Logistical issues related to research.

Ø      Ethical issues related to research.

13. Lecture Thirteen: Writing References……….……………………………………..88

Ø      References.

Ø      Importance of references.

Ø      Using American Psychological Association (APA) referencing system.

LECTURE ONE

UNDERSTANDING BASIC RESEARCH CONCEPTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

INTRODUCTION

This is the first lecture in this course. In this lecture, you will be introduced to some common concepts used in education research. You will learn concepts such as research and research in education and lastly we shall learn what scientific approach is versus common sense.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: Define what a research is. Explain what research in education means. Differentiate common sense from scientific thinking.

SUBTOPICS

1. Meaning of research.
2. Research in education.
3. Scientific approach and common sense.
4. Characteristics of a research.

1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH

It is my belief that in one way or another you have been involved in searching for information for several purposes. Some of the information you searched may have been related to students, parents and fellow teachers.

The term “research” has several definitions. Let us discuss some of the definitions:

To research is to carry out a diligent inquiry or critical examination of a given phenomenon. It implies exhaustive study, investigation or experimentation following some logical sequence.

Research involves critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories with regard to newly discovered facts.

Research is the intellectual application of the investigation of matter. It is used for discovering, interpreting and development of methods and systems for advancement in human knowledge.

Generally, research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others. In this lecture you will learn what research is and what it is not, including eight characteristics of research.

1.2 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

At this point, am sure that many of you know what education is. However, let me remind you of one of the best definitions of education. It states that, ‘education’ is the process of imparting knowledge, skills and values of society to the young generation.

Now, what is educational research?

Educational research is therefore, the systematic application of research characteristics to the study of education issues and problems. There are various issues in education that needs to be addressed. Some of issues are simple while others are complex. Other issues are simple classroom affairs while others are general issues such as performance, discipline in the school, truancy and quality of education within the society.

Educational research can also be referred to a variety of methods, in which individuals evaluate different aspects of education including but not limited to student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics.

In his book entitled “Fundamentals of Educational Research”, Gary (1998) has outlined ten characteristics that can be used to further understand what the field of educational research entails. The characteristics are:

• Educational research attempts to solve a problem.
• Educational research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
• Educational research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
• Educational research demands accurate observation and description of educational issues.
• Educational research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
• Educational research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control.
• Educational research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.
• Educational research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.
• Educational research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses.
• Educational research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

However, educational research is more complex because it can use various approaches and strategies to solve problems in educational setting. It also can involve many disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, and history. In addition, educational research is important because it contributes towards knowledge development, practical improvement, and policy information. Therefore, educators can use research findings to improve their competences and skills in the process of teaching and learning process.

ACTIVITY

List at least eight areas in education where you would be interested to conduct research if you are given that opportunity.

1.3 SCIENTIFIC APPROACH VERSUS COMMON SENSE

Common sense can be explained as sound and prudent judgment based on a simple perception of the situation or facts. Common sense (in this view) equates to the knowledge and experiences which most people already have, or which the person using the term believes that they do have or should have.

The role of common sense is just to judge issues under simple assumption while science is to confirm, reject or quantify phenomena in the world around us.

The strict definition of scientific approach is performing a methodical study in order to prove a hypothesis or answer a specific question. Finding a definitive answer is the central goal of any experimental process. Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol. These rules are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of science.

Scientific research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing literature reviews of past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered. Any type of ‘real’ research, whether scientific, economic or historical, requires some kind of interpretation and an opinion from the researcher. This opinion is the underlying principle, or question, that establishes the nature of research to be scientific and not common sense.

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH

There are some vital characteristics of good research. Across every field and every area of study these characteristics hold true. The characteristics of research are:

 First is the use of competent experts. This can be due to the expert’s education or life experience. You should always have two or three experts per major view you are researching.

This brings me to the next characteristic, balance. Some topics have many facets, some only one or two. Good research doesn't shy away from opposing views; it must deal with them credibly. You cannot "stack the deck" in your favor by using good resources only for your point of view.

Good research must also use correct formatting. Grammar, punctuation and a writing style must be followed. This is part of good research because it is only through these things that your ideas are correctly conveyed to your audience.

Research is systematic: A researcher should employ a structured procedure. From the beginning to the end should follow certain pre-established rules and regulations.

Research is logical: Without manipulating ideas logically, the scientific researcher cannot make much progress in any investigation.

Research is reductive: As a practical phenomenon, reductivity refers to reducing researcher's responsibility. This means that findings of one researcher is transferred to other researchers to prevent them from repeating, the same research. In other words, research is in most cases, additive. Findings are accumulated, sometimes from one generation to another, in order of scientists to use them in their endeavor to uncover the mysterious of nature.

Research is replicable: In such situations, in which other researchers are interested in previously investigated question, they may want to confirm the findings of previous research in new environment, with a new group of subjects, or at a different point in time.

Research is generative: This is one of the most valuable characteristics of research because answering one question leads to generating many other new questions.

SUMMARY

In this lecture you have leant that: Ø      Educational research is the science of seeking, collecting, organizing, analyzing and interpreting data to solve educational problems. Ø      Research has certain characteristics. Some of these are; based on curiosity, systematic, replicable, reflexive, and cyclical and many others.

EXERCISE

1. Explain whether the following are research activities or not: (a)   Assignment given by Mwakamele to write about political scandals in Tanzania. (b)   Writing specific objectives for particular phenomenon. (c)    Watching people gathering at Biafra grounds. 2. Identify and List some characteristics of research that were not discussed in this lecture.

 FURTHER READINGS

Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press. Gary, A. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Research. New York, Federal Departmental Press.

LECTURE TWO

PURPOSE AND FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

In lecture one you learnt important terms and concepts in educational research. In this lecture, you will learn the importance, purpose and functions of research in education.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able: Evaluate the purpose and functions of research in education. Identify challenges facing educational research.

SUBTOPICS

1. Purpose/functions/tasks of research in education.
2. Challenges/problems of research in education.

2.1 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

The main purpose of research is to discover new knowledge. This involves the discovery of new facts, their correct interpretation and practical application. Though there are other sources of knowledge, research in education remains the most efficient and reliable source of knowledge.

The second purpose of educational research is to develop new knowledge about the teaching-learning situation to improve educational practice. Educational research might address (but is not limited to) the following variables:

• Learning: How do students learn various subjects?
• Teaching: What are the best teaching practices that foster students’ achievement?
• Motivation: What are the best practices for teachers to motivate their students to achieve?
• Development: How do children and adults change over time, including their cognitive, social, and emotional skills?
• Classroom management: What classroom or school practices that promote optimal classroom learning?

By collecting scientific data about these important topics in education, educational research can establish the best practices that teachers, counselors, administrators, and students should use to improve learning. Therefore, educational researchers in Tanzania should focus on practical research projects that will have significant implications for education.

For example, Siegler & Ramani (2009) conducted a research study to examine best practices of teaching number skills to young children. Maths teachers typically teach number skills by asking pupils to recite the number string (e.g., "Say after me: 1, 2, 3..."), count objects (e.g., "How many beans are there?"), and name numerals (e.g., "Which number is written on the board?"). However, Siegler and Ramani looked at a theory of how young children understand number and thought that they could come up with a better and more fun method of teaching number skills. They developed a number game that might look something like this:

Source: Siegler and Ramani (2009)

Spinning method

The game simply requires a piece of paper with the numbers 1 to 10 written across it, two markers (the smiley faces - these can be bottle caps), and a spinner with the numbers 1 and 2. (Alternatively, the numbers 1 and 2 can be written on pieces of paper and put into a cup). To play the game, the players alternately spin the spinner (or pick a number) and move their marker that many spaces, naming the numbers they land on. ("I am on the number four.

Picking method

I picked the number two. I move five, six."). Children at a school were randomly put in either a traditional mathematics group or the game group. Children in the traditional mathematics group received normal mathematics instruction whereas children in the game group played this game. After a few weeks, all of the children were tested on their mathematics skills. These researchers found that on average, children in the game group performed better than the traditional group in mathematics estimation, comparing numbers, and arithmetic! Siegler and Ramani found a better and more fun way of teaching mathematics and they have scientific evidence based on the children's mathematics test scores to support that their way of teaching mathematics was better than the traditional one.

The third purpose is to describe an educational phenomenon. Accurate identification of any event involves thorough description.

The purpose of research is to solve problems, investigate knowledge, and establish principles in educational phenomena. In short, educational research focuses on solving the problems and developing knowledge.

ACTIVITY

In the subtopic above we have learnt the purpose of research in education. Discuss how research can improve education practices.

2.2 WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TASKS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH?

The first major task of educational research is to conceptualize, observe and systematically record events and processes based on learning. The second task is to analyze such observations in order to describe accurately their conditions, contexts and implications. Both tasks are concerned with learning in its widest meaning.

The third task is to publish accounts of all that is known about the particular topic under consideration, drawing on existing theory from one of the disciplines which contribute to our field, from educational theory itself, or from emerging theory that will itself be aided by the work.

But even with a theoretical underpinning, the researchers' task is not complete for they have to relate their findings to political, economic and social aspects of society.

Research may be empirical or philosophical; it may involve fieldwork or it may be concerned with texts alone. Where it differs significantly from other forms of intellectual endeavor is through its essential transparency - it is a public process and replication is encouraged.

The fourth task, and - in my view - the main task of educational research is to further educational improvement. In the words, research can do this most easily through the advancement of trustworthy knowledge about education. Research is not just for fun - although hopefully it is sometimes or will just be for theory building. Rather, we want something to happen as a result of the endeavor.

2.3 CHALLENGES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Although it is evident that research is important in education, it is clear that educational research still faces number of challenges. Some of the challenges on limitations include inter alia:

Ø      Lack of funding, being the main problem. In my judgment, we have not invested sufficient energy in developing theories of learning and in investigating the reasons for learning problems. Despite the good work done by other researchers, there remains much we just do not know enough about why and when and where learning does or does not take place. We still do not know much about educational pedagogy: about, for instance, whether it is wise to begin formal teaching at seven years of age despite findings from new studies made. We still do not know enough about the interdependency between assessment and learning. More funding is required in educational research. This remains as a major challenge to our society.

Ø      Complex societies and education systems require a sound knowledge base for teachers and policy makers. In contrast to other sectors such as the health sector, there has not been huge scientific progress in the education sector. While education researchers have contributed much to the improved understanding of problems in education, training and learning, they have often been criticized for not producing sufficient knowledge for application and action.

Ø      Educational research is often condemned as being too theoretical; theory being seen as a term of abuse! There is a poem by Goethe (1985) with a line - "All theory, dear friend, is grey, but the golden tree of actual life springs ever green" and this seems to sum up the view of many people that theory is boring and irrelevant. It seems to me that, despite this criticism, theory is often ignored by educational researchers, although we all dutifully regret its absence. The numbers of researchers who have made significant contributions to theory – such as Piaget or Bernstein are few and far between and mostly come from other social science traditions.

Ø      Lack of research experts in education. To conduct successful educational research, we need expert knowledge. Most of our researchers in education in Tanzania are not well trained in research.

 SUMMARY

In this lecture we have discussed the importance and functions of educational research. Whatever type of educational research you are pursuing, doing, recall that the purpose of educational research is to improve educational practice. Having an understanding of educational research and conducting high quality educational research can have the following benefits for educational practice: Ø      Provide instruction that maximizes students' learning. Ø      Understand and support the developmental needs of pupils. Ø      Develop an educational environment that supports students' motivation. Ø      Provide solutions to educational problems. Therefore, you need to develop a research study that can have a significant impact on improving the teaching-learning situation.

EXERCISE

1. State the meaning and purpose of educational research. 2. Discuss the main challenges facing educational research.

FURTHER READINGS

Mertans, M. D. & McLaughlin, A. J. (1995). Research methods in Special Education. London: Sage Publication. Roberts, K. (1985). Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Quotes and Sayings. Hamburg: Christian Wegner Verlag. Siegler, R. S. & Ramani, G. B. (2009). Playing linear number Board Games - but not circular ones - improves low-income preschoolers' numerical understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 545-560.

LECTURE THREE

SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

INTRODUCTION

Collecting information with no particular plan or purpose and then hoping to transform it into a research project is not likely to succeed. Selecting and defining the research problem begins during the first steps of the research process. In this lecture, you will learn what research problem is and how to identify a researchable topic. Identifying and defining a research problem is the fuel that drives the research process, and is the foundation of any research in education. Look at any research paper at OUT library, and you will see the research problem, written almost like a statement of intent.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: Define a research problem. Outline the sources of research problem. Identify a research problem. State a research problem.

SUBTOPICS

1. Research problem.
2. Sources of problems in research.

                  3.   Stating the research problem.

3.1 A RESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a research problem?

Before we discuss the meaning of a research problem let us learn the meaning of a problem in research. We already know what is research, as we previously discussed in lecture one.

A problem is a set of conditions needing discussion, a solution, and information. That is a very clear definition for you! But technically it implies the possibility of empirical investigation, that is, of data collection and analysis. A research problem is therefore the aspect the researcher worries about, thinks about, and wants to find a solution for.

A more common pitfall associated with academic research is to select a genuinely important topic, but one that is so large or amorphous that it would require a life's work to make sense of it. The opposite pitfall is also true! Researching a problem that is so specific and limited that it makes no meaningful contribution to the field, is not likely to strengthen your research skills or allow for a publishable output. Care should be taken here! The problem provides the context for the research study and typically generates questions which the research hopes to answer. In considering whether or not to move forward with a research project, you will generally spend some time considering the problem.

ACTIVITY

Briefly discuss the features of a research problem.

Some questions for a good research topic/problem

Before you conclude on the topic you have selected here are some tips/questions that you must consider:

1. Is the topic you propose for yourself really researchable, or is it something else? That is, can it be understood by others?
2. Is the problem of current interest? That is, the degree to which research on this problem will assist your professional goals and career objectives.
3. Can the research topic you are proposing be completed within the available time period?
4. Does your research problem appear solvable with the methods of investigation you have in mind?
5. Will the outcomes of your research topic be considered significant by the readers for whom your project is intended?
6. Is there evidence or authoritative opinion from others to support the need for this research?
7. Relating to your topic, do you already have the knowledge and skills required for completing your research? If not, how and when do you intend to acquire them?
8. If you select that topic, what expenses do you expect to incur, and how do you expect to pay them?
9. Does your supervisor or faculty committee approve your proposed research problem/topic?

3.2 SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION

There are several sources of research problems. Let us discuss some few but important ones.

3.2.1 Professional Experiences

Beyond critical reading and listening, a further source of topics is that of problems met on the job, either on your own job or someone else's. Experiences and on-the-job problems is one of the main sources for discovering suitable topics.

3.2.2 Critical Reading and Listening

Questions you ask about what you read or hear can raise concerns on identifying a research problem (a) the significance or focus of an author's research topic, (b) the applicability of an author's results to other populations, times, or places, (c) a researcher's methods of collecting information, (d) ways data have been classified, (e) an author's theory of what causes events to occur as they do, (f) applications of theories, or (g) some combination of several of these matters.

3.2.3 Revising theories

As suggested earlier, a theory in its most basic form is a description of components, variables, or factors and how those components interact to produce some outcome. Thus, theories are explanatory in that they propose how and why things happen as they do. In your survey of how other scholars have diagnosed problems in your field of interest, you may be dissatisfied with the explanations they offered, so you try to think of a better way-or at least an alternative way to account for what occurred. In other words, you create a theory of your own or perhaps a variation of someone else's model. As a result, your thesis or dissertation takes the form of an explication, and perhaps an application, of your theory.

The following example illustrates ways to invent a research topic of this sort.

This is the case of Lugano, a hypothetical bachelor degree candidate interested in the fate of educational reforms. After reading a host of evaluations of educational reform efforts, large and small, he realizes that educational innovations often become bogged down, with some of them dying completely and others falling well short of the success envisioned by their proponents. This student is particularly curious about how analysts account for reform failures. In other words, he's interested in theories of the success and failure of educational innovations. In his survey of the professional literature, he discovers a variety of factors that ostensibly account for the outcomes of educational change efforts, such factors as (a) available financial resources, (b) ways of presenting reform proposals, (c) the qualities of the people responsible for implementing a reform, (d) how many people will be affected by the innovation, and more. But one factor that he thinks has been overlooked is that of the risk people face when they are expected to participate in an educational change. Therefore, as his dissertation problem, he takes on the challenge of formulating a risk theory to explain, at least partially, why some educational innovations succeed better than others.

3.2.4 Research Problem from Expert

The simplest source of a problem to solve is to have it given to you as a class assignment, as a directed research project, or as a task. You are told what problem to research and how to do it. This is probably an ideal way to assure that your first research topic is a good one.

3.2.5 Research Problem from Informal Discussion

This is a research problem that some discussion group feels is interesting. Discussion among friends can often spark our interest in a problem or provides us with the reinforcers for pursuing a question.

Example: After telling a group of friends about your success with oral presentations on test taking, the group talks about it for awhile and becomes interested in the possibility of the subject becoming confused as well as doing better as a result of feedback from the listeners. The group provides you with the idea and the excitement to do research on how students can affect the accuracy of a teacher's understanding.

3.2.6 Research Problem from a Paradoxical Incident or Conflicting Results

If the world is perfectly understood, then there can be no surprises. On the contrary, if something surprises you, then your theoretical framework is inadequate and needs development. If two seemingly similar procedures produce different results, then something is wrong with your understanding of the procedures. They are not actually similar in the important respect of how they affect the dependent variable. Given that an error has been made, something is not correctly understood and must be resolved.

3.3 STATING THE PROBLEM

The most difficult aspect of research is formulating a clear, concise, and manageable research problem. Initial problem statements are reworked and reworded many times until one gets a clear and concise picture of the intention of the researcher.

To state the research problem is to define, to make it clear, to make it well known! Defining a research problem is crucial in defining the quality of the answers, and determines the exact research questions to be used in your study.

The statement of problem is therefore, one of the first statements made in any research paper and, as well as defining the research area, should include a quick synopsis of how the conclusion will be arrived at. It implies inductive reasoning to understand a particular situation or historical period. It uses terms like how, what, why and when.

ACTIVITY

Develop a first draft of the statement of the problem.

The statement of the problem is more specific than a topic or research problem itself, and it limits the scope of the research problem.

It:

• Communicates the focus and importance of the problem.
• Communicates the context and scope.
• Provides the framework for reporting the results. Indicate why is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.
• Introduces the reader to the importance of the problem. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow.

3.3.1 Points to consider:

• Outline the general context of the problem area.
• Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area.
• What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area?
• Why are these issues identified important?
• What needs to be solved?
• Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered questions or controversies, and/or to identify the most significant issues for further exploration.

3.3.2 Characteristics of a well stated research problem

·         The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem.  Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.

• The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as completely as possible.  You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use.  Avoid meaningless words.  There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions are.
• Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into sub problems is of the utmost importance.
• Clarifies exactly what one wants to investigate.

SUMMARY

In this lecture we have discussed what the research problem is, sources of   research problems and how to state the problem. It is clear that you can now identify the research problem, trace its source and precisely state the problem.

EXERCISES

1. Which of the following statements is phrased as a research problem? The purpose of the study is to determine: (a)   Whether the Primary Education Policy should be changed. (b)   The truth of the proposition that Tanzanian education has encouraged and elite class in the country. (c)    How students can overcome test anxiety. (d)  If there is a difference in the mean gain scores in reading achievement between students taught word attack skills and those taught comprehensive skills. 2. Which of the following statements is NOT phrased as a research problem? The purpose of the study is to investigate: (a)   If there is a positive relationship between the number of books a child owns and reading readiness scores. (b)   How Kata schools can involve parents in their educational program. (c)    How Ms. Mary Sige, the college principal, encourages faculty to assume instructional leadership roles during an academic year. (d)  The legal principles applied in educational cases decided by the National Examination Council of Tanzania (NECTA). (e)   What it means to teach a handicapped child mainstreamed into Mr. Lugano’s seventh-grade class.

FURTHER READINGS

Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press. Mugenda,  O. M. & Mugenda,  A. G. (2003). Research Methods. Nairobi: Acts Press.

LECTURE FOUR

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE APPROACHES IN EDUCATION RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

I hope you know that there is no one way of reaching Dodoma. One can either go to Dodoma by train, air or road.  In the same manner, there are many ways of doing research depending on the type of data you want to collect. In this lecture therefore you will be introduced to two major research approaches: namely, qualitative and quantitative. We shall discuss their similarities as well as their differences.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: Explain the nature of each research approach. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative approaches. Discuss the advantages and limitations of each research approach. Select and apply each research approach correctly.

SUBTOPICS

1. Qualitative Research Approach.
2. Quantitative Research Approach.
3. Comparing Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
4. Designing qualitative research.

4.1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

4.1.1 What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and other contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed than large samples.

Qualitative research is a type of scientific research. In general terms, scientific research consists of an investigation that:

• Seeks answers to a question.
• Systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question.
• Collects evidence.
• Produces findings that were not determined in advance.

Qualitative research in general is more likely to take place in a natural setting. This means that topics for study focus on everyday activities as defined, enacted, smoothed, and made problematic by persons going about their normal routines. Qualitative research is less likely to impose restrictive classification on the collection of data. It is less driven by very specific hypotheses and categorical frameworks and more concerned with emergent themes and idiographic descriptions (Cassell & Symon, 1994).

One can name three characteristics of qualitative inquiry. First, qualitative research is the study of symbolic discourse that consists of the study of texts and conversations. Second, qualitative research is the study of the interpretive principles that people use to make sense of their symbolic activities. Third, qualitative research is the study of contextual principles, such as the roles of the participants, the physical setting, and a set of situational events, which guide the interpretation of discourse.

The strengths of the qualitative method include:

• Obtaining a more realistic feel of the world that cannot be experienced in the numerical data and statistical analysis used in quantitative research.
• Flexible ways to perform data collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation of collected information.
• Provide a holistic view of the phenomena under investigation.
• Ability to interact with the research subjects in their own language and on their own terms.
• Descriptive capability based on primary and unstructured data.

The weaknesses of the qualitative method include:

• Departing from the original objectives of the research in response to the changing nature of the context.
• Arriving to different conclusions based on the same information depending on the personal characteristics of the researcher.
• Inability to investigate causality between different research phenomena.
• Difficulty in explaining the difference in the quality and quantity of information obtained from different respondents and arriving at different, non-consistent conclusions.
• Requiring a high level of experience from the researcher to obtain the targeted information from the respondent.
• Lacking consistency and reliability because the researcher can employ different probing techniques and the respondent can choose to tell some particular stories and ignore others.

4.1.2 What can we learn from qualitative research?

The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex textual descriptions of how people experience a given research issue. It provides information about the “human” side of an issue – that is, the often contradictory behaviors, beliefs, opinions, emotions, and relationships of individuals. Qualitative methods are also effective in identifying intangible factors, such as social norms, socioeconomic status, gender roles, ethnicity, and religion, whose role in the research issue may not be readily apparent. When used along with quantitative methods, qualitative research can help us to interpret and better understand the complex reality of a given situation and the implications of quantitative data.

Although findings from qualitative data can often be extended to people with characteristics similar to those in the study population, gaining a rich and complex understanding of a specific social context or phenomenon typically takes precedence over eliciting data that can be generalized to other geographical areas or populations. In this sense, qualitative research differs slightly from other scientific research in general.

4.1.3 Some qualitative approaches

In social sciences the most frequently used qualitative research approaches include the following:

Ethnographic research

This approach is used for investigating cultures by collecting and describing data that is intended to help in the development of a theory. This method is also called “ethnomethodology” or "methodology of the people". An example of applied ethnographic research is the study of a particular culture and their understanding of the role of a particular disease in their cultural framework.

Critical social research

An approach used by a researcher to understand how people communicate and develop symbolic meanings.

Ethical inquiry

This is an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes the study of ethics as related to obligation, rights, duty, right and wrong, choice etc.

Foundational research

Foundational research examines the foundations for a science, analyses the beliefs and develops ways to specify how a knowledge base should change in light of new information.

Historical research

This approach allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Historical research helps us in answering questions such as: Where have we come from, where are we, who are we now and where are we going?

Phenomenology

Phenomenology describes the “subjective reality” of an event, as perceived by the study population; it is the study of a phenomenon.

Philosophical research

This research is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a specific field of study or profession, the best qualified individual in any field of study may use an intellectual analysis, in order to clarify definitions, identify ethics, or make a value judgment concerning an issue in their field of study.

4.1.4 Qualitative research methods

There are a wide variety of methods that are common in qualitative measurement. In fact, the methods are largely limited by the imagination of the researcher. Here I discuss a few of the more common methods.

Participant Observation

One of the most common methods for qualitative data collection, participant observation is also one of the most demanding. It requires that the researcher become a participant in the culture or context being observed. The literature on participant observation discusses how to enter the context, the role of the researcher as a participant, the collection and storage of field notes, and the analysis of field data. Participant observation often requires months or years of intensive work because the researcher needs to become accepted as a natural part of the culture in order to assure that the observations are of the natural phenomenon.

Direct Observation

Direct observation is distinguished from participant observation in a number of ways. First, a direct observer doesn't typically try to become a participant in the context. The direct observer does strive to be as unobtrusive as possible so as not to bias the observations. Second, direct observation suggests a more detached perspective. The researcher is watching rather than taking part. Consequently, technology can be a useful part of direct observation. For instance, one can videotape the phenomenon or observe from behind one-way mirrors. Third, direct observation tends to be more focused than participant observation. The researcher is observing certain sampled situations or people rather than trying to become immersed in the entire context. Finally, direct observation tends not to take as long as participant observation. For instance, one might observe child-mother interactions under specific circumstances in a laboratory setting from behind a one-way mirror, looking especially for the nonverbal cues being displayed or conveyed.

Unstructured Interviewing

Unstructured interviewing involves direct interaction between the researcher and a respondent or a group of respondents. It differs from traditional structured interviewing in several important ways. First, although the researcher may have some initial guiding questions or core concepts to ask about, there is no formal structured instrument or protocol. Second, the interviewer is free to move the conversation in any direction of interest that may come up. Consequently, unstructured interviewing is particularly useful for exploring a topic broadly. However, there is a price for this lack of structure. Because each interview tends to be unique with no predetermined set of questions asked of all respondents, it is usually more difficult to analyze unstructured interview data, especially when synthesizing across respondents.

Case Studies

A case study is an intensive study of a specific individual or specific context. For instance, Freud developed case studies of several individuals as the basis for the theory of psychoanalysis. Piaget also did case studies of children to study their developmental phases. There is no single way to conduct a case study, and a combination of methods (e.g., unstructured interviewing, direct observation) can be used.

4.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

The quantitative approach employs highly structured techniques of data collection, such as surveys that allow quantification, hypotheses, measurement and operationalisation which are quantifiable in nature.

The quantitative approach is prepared in a precise and accurate manner with the study problem formulated in advance. The underlying thinking of this approach holds that all understanding of cause in educational research can arise only from unbiased and generalisable quantitative estimates of relationships between a variable and an outcome variable. This is because being able to generalise to a larger population is the major goal, this approach concentrates on how accurately estimates of a relationship in the researchers sample reflect those in the population as a whole.

This method of arguing from the particular to the general by showing the relationship between the causal variable to the outcome variable is called the deductive method and is a major characteristic of the quantitative approach.

Being deductive and particularistic, quantitative research is based upon formulating the research hypotheses and verifying them empirically on a specific set of data. Scientific hypotheses are value-free; the researcher's own values, biases, and subjective preferences have no place in the quantitative approach. Researchers can view the communication process as concrete and tangible and can analyze it without contacting actual people involved in the communication.

The strengths of the quantitative method include:

• Stating the research problem in very specific and set terms.
• Clearly and precisely specifying both the independent and the dependent variables under investigation.
• Following firmly the original set of research goals, arriving at more objective conclusions, testing hypothesis and determining the issues of causality.
• Achieving high levels of reliability of gathered data due to controlled observations, laboratory experiments, mass surveys, or other form of research manipulations.
• Eliminating or minimizing subjectivity of judgment.
• Allowing for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of research subjects.

The weaknesses of the quantitative method include:

• Failure to provide the researcher with information on the context of the situation where the studied phenomenon occurs.
• Inability to control the environment where the respondents provide the answers to the questions in the survey.
• Limited outcomes to only those outlined in the original research proposal due to closed type of questions and the structured format.
• Not encouraging the evolving and continuous investigation of a research phenomenon.

ACTIVITY

With your friends, list and discuss four major differences you know between Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research.

4.3 COMPARING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

What are the basic differences between quantitative and qualitative research

Methods?

Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ primarily in:

• Their analytical objectives.
• The types of questions they pose.
• The types of data collection instruments they use.
• The forms of data they produce.
• The degree of flexibility built into study design.

What is the most important difference between quantitative and qualitative methods?

The key difference between quantitative and qualitative methods is their flexibility. Generally, quantitative methods are fairly inflexible. With quantitative methods such as surveys and questionnaires, for example, researchers ask all participants identical questions in the same order. The response categories from which participants may choose are “closed-ended” or fixed. The advantage of this inflexibility is that it allows for meaningful comparison of responses across participants and study sites. However, it requires a thorough understanding of the important questions to ask, the best way to ask them, and the range of possible responses.

Qualitative methods are typically more flexible – that is, they allow greater spontaneity and adaptation of the interaction between the researcher and the study participant. For example, qualitative methods ask mostly “open-ended” questions that are not necessarily worded in exactly the same way with each participant. With open-ended questions, participants are free to respond in their own words, and these responses tend to be more complex than simply “yes” or “no.”

In addition, with qualitative methods, the relationship between the researcher and the participant is often less formal than in quantitative research. Participants have the opportunity to respond more elaborately and in greater detail than is typically the case with quantitative methods. In turn, researchers have the opportunity to respond immediately to what participants say by tailoring subsequent questions to information the participant has provided.

It is important to note, however, that there is a range of flexibility among methods used in both quantitative and qualitative research and that flexibility is not an indication of how scientifically rigorous a method is. Rather, the degree of flexibility reflects the kind of understanding of the problem that is being pursued using the method.

SUMMARY

We have described the various elements of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to educational research. With regard to the quantitative approach we looked at the highly structured techniques of data collection, which largely defines the role of the approach as deductive in nature. The quantitative approach is precise and accurate, inspired by an underlying thinking that its authority and superiority as a method of educational research is predicated on its unbiased and scientific approach. The qualitative approach however employs the inductive method of arguing from the specific to the general by developing theories and explanations of the real world drawing its conclusions from the outcome of such human research materials as focus groups, interviews and case studies. Recent thinking on the strengths and weaknesses of both methods generally agrees that a mixture of ingredients of both methods adapted to the individual requirements of the particular research question under consideration is the most appropriate method to adopt.

EXERCISES

Discuss the most important features of qualitative and quantitative research. Explain the principal differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches.

FURTHER READINGS

Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press. Cassell, C., & Symon, G. (1994). Qualitative research in work contexts. In C. Cassell, & G. Symon (Eds.), Qualitative methods in organizational research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Pp 1-1

LECTURE FIVE

DESIGNING AND PLANNING A SCIENTIFIC STUDY

INTRODUCTION

In previous lecture we learnt the differences between qualitative and quantitative research. I hope by now you should be able to distinguish the two and discuss them. In this lecture we are going to learn on how to design and plan a scientific study.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture you should be able to: Identify and describe steps for designing a scientific study. Design a scientific study in the area of education. Present a plan for the study.

SUBTOPICS

1. A scientific study.
2. Research design.
3. Importance of research design.
4. Features of research design.
5. Designing and planning for a study.

5.1 WHAT IS A SCIENTIFIC STUDY?

Research is a science because it follows procedures of investigation. If it has procedures, then it requires planning and designing. Therefore this section is concerned with the process of how to design and plan a research.

5.2 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is a plan of how the researcher is going to carry out the investigations. It includes discussing when, where, how and why the research is going to be started and accomplished.

Research design also refers to the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine ideas for the research purpose.

Research design is a conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of the data.

Research design includes the following questions that a researcher has to ask himself/ herself.

1.                              What is the purpose of the study?                       

2.                              Why is the study being made?

3.                              Where the study is being carried out?    

4.                              What type of data is required?

5.                              Where can the required data be found?

6.                              What periods of time will the study include?

7.                              What will be sample design?

8.                              What technique of data collection will be used?

9.                              How will the data be analyzed?

10.                          In what style will the report be prepared?

You can have more other questions like:

·         What political, social and economic considerations should be taken into account?

·         What resources are available for the study?

·         What ethical issues should be observed?

All of these questions cannot be answered by the researchers alone. They involve consultations with the interested participants in the study, for instance supervisors, policy makers, information founder, politician and other experienced researchers on the field. The role of the investigator is to facilitate the consultations at different levels.

This is an important process in all types of research, be it qualitative or quantitative.

ACTIVITY

In your study group, discuss why do we need to design a study before it is carried out?

5.3 IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is needed because:

1. It facilitates smooth running of the various research operations.
2. It makes research as efficient as possible.
3. It yields maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort time and money.
4. Research design is just like a ‘blue point’ or a ‘map of the research’ or ‘map of house’.
5. Research design has a great bearing on the reliability of the result. A good design may produce good results.
6. Preparation of the research should be done with great care as any error in       it may upset the entire project. Some researches may come up with misleading conclusion.
7. It helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas and such design should be given to other for comments and critical analysis before the researcher goes to the field.

5.4. FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

A good research is often characterized by:

1.      A design that minimizes bias.

2.      Being appropriate and flexible – due to discovery of new ideas.

3.      Reliability of the data collected.

4.      A design that gives a smallest experimental error.

5.      A design that yields/gives maximum information about the research problem.

6.      A design that clearly meets the purpose or objective of the study.

7.      A design that considers the availability of time, staff and money.

5.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

There are three types of result designs.

5.5.1 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

Ø      Type of design aimed at formulating a problem for more precise investigation.

Ø      The major purpose is to discover new ideas and insights.

Ø      The researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others.

E.g. literature review, reading works done by creative writers may provide a fertile ground by which a researcher can identify a problem.

Ø      The researcher should survey people who have had practical experience with problem to be studied.

Ø      The researcher should prepare an interview schedule for systematic questioning of informants.

5.5.2 DESCRIPTIVE/ DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH DESIGN

Descriptive research designs are those studies / designs which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or a group.

The design should consider the following elements:

·         The research must define clearly what the researcher wants to measure.

·         Must show the population he/she wants to study.

·         Carefully planned procedure.

·         Must be rigid not flexible and must focus attention on the following:

1.      Formulating the objective of the study.

2.   Designing the method /technique of data collection.

3.   Selecting the sample.

4.   Collecting data.

5.   Processing and analyzing data.

6.   Reporting the findings.

 Comparison

Exploratory	Descriptive
Flexible( consider different aspects	Rigid design
Non – probability sampling design	Probability (Random sampling)
Non- Pre planned for the analysis	Pre planned statistics design
Unstructured instrument for collection of data.	Structured instrument
No fixed decisions	Advanced decisions are made.

5.6 HYPOTHESIS TESTITING RESEARCH DESIGN

These are research designs used to test the validity of hypothesis so as to reduce bias and increase reliability of the research. These designs are generally known as experimental studies.

There are principles to follow in experiments:

1. Experiment should be done repeatedly (more than once). Principle of replication. Repeating the experiment may make it easier to get truth.
2. Every individual have equal chance of being selected. The principle of randomization. This helps to reduce biasness.
3. Deliberate measure should be considered or taken to reduce the chance of extraneous variable. The Principle of local control. This is to reduce errors in experiments.

ACTIVITY

How can you test the Hypothesis that students from Low Social Status do not excel in academics?

5.7 EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Both experimental and quasi-experimental research designs examine the effect of an independent variable that is manipulated by the researcher on a dependent variable. To manipulate the independent variable, participants are placed in two groups. A treatment group that receives the treatment and a control group that is identical to the treatment group except that they do not receive the treatment. Then these two groups are compared on the dependent variable. For example, the study examining the effect of computerized instruction on mathematics skills, which will be measured by mathematics test. There are many factors that could influence a student's score on a math test such as age, quality of instruction in mathematics, interest in mathematics, valuing of education, sickness, distraction, etc. All of these variables are extraneous variables, any variable besides the independent variable that might unduly contribute to differences between the treatment and control group. It is the researcher's responsibility to control for extraneous variables, meaning that the researcher needs to carefully plan the research study so that extraneous variables are limited. For example, imagine that the treatment group has a different teacher than the control group. The treatment group's teacher might be better than the control group, so any difference between the treatment and control group on the dependent variable might be caused by the teacher, not by the computerized instruction. This means that the researcher needs to carefully consider any differences between the treatment and control group and make an effort to minimize these differences in the planning stage. The research design should report the steps that were taken to minimize the influences of extraneous variables.

The only difference between an experimental and a quasi-experimental design is how the participants were placed in the groups. Experimental designs must have random assignment to the two groups. Quasi-experimental designs use intact groups, such as a specific classroom. Random assignment (sometimes also called randomization) is different from random selection, and it is important to be clear in these two concepts. Selection refers to how participants were selected from the population to participate in the study. On the other hand, assignment occurs after participants have already been selected. The researcher already has a list of names of those people who will participate in the study, so assignment refers to how those participants are assigned to the treatment and control groups. Random assignment means that participants are randomly assigned to the treatment and control groups: not assigned based on previous test scores, not assigned based on classroom, not assigned based on any characteristic of the person, but purely random. The reason that researchers use random assignment is to control for extraneous variables. As previously described, there are a million different factors that can influence scores on the dependent variable. However, when participants are assigned to the treatment and control groups completely randomly, then it is assumed that these extraneous factors balance out. When randomly assigned, one group might be slightly smarter, but the other group might have higher motivation. One group might be slightly sicker on the day of the test, but the other group might have more personal problems that caused anxiety. Random assignment assumes that all of these extraneous variables balance each other out. If a study uses random assignment, a pre-test is not necessary. In some cases, such as achievement tests, a pre-test can actually be harmful. In an achievement test, when participants see the questions on the pre-test, they might learn the answers on the questions outside of the treatment. In this case, the pre-test is what influenced the post-test scores and not the treatment itself. Therefore, in some cases, pre-testing is harmful and should be avoided. The researcher should carefully consider the advantages and disadvantages of giving a pre-test in the planning stage. Again, if random assignment to groups is used, a pre-test is not needed because random assignment assumes that both groups are equal at the start of the treatment.

SUMMARY

We have discussed many concepts relating to planning a scientific study. A researcher must have in hand so many questions that help the researcher to organize his ideas. In summary, research plan must contain the following; ·      Research objectives ·      The problem to be studied. ·      Major concept should be defined by a researcher. ·      Method to be used in solving a problem. ·      Details of techniques to be adopted. ·      A clear mention of population to be studied. ·      Methods to be used in processing the data. ·      Time and cost budgets for research project should be prepared and laid down.

EXERCISE

Discuss the basic steps in planning a scientific study.

FURTHER READINGS

Fraenkel, J. R. &  Wallen, N. (2000). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

LECTURE SIX

DEVELOPING RESEARCH TOOLS AND COLLECTING DATA

INTRODUCTION

              In lecture five, we discussed in more details on how to design and plan a study. In this lecture we shall learn how to develop research instruments/tools. A researcher needs to develop tools with which to collect the necessary information. It is just like a farmer who must have a hoe or an ox for cultivation. In similar way a researcher cannot collect data without tools. In education and other social science fields the most commonly used instruments are questionnaires, interview schedules, observation checklist and focus group discussion. The tools to be used may depend on the type of research design. 

             

                LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: ·         Identify and discuss different data collection tools. ·         State the characteristics of each tool, its merits and demerits. ·         Develop research tools and ways to collect data.

SUBTOPICS

1. Observation.
2. Interviews.
3. Questionnaires.
4. Focus Group discussions.
5. Analyzing documents.

6.1 TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

A researcher cannot collect data without tools. A tool is a technique or method of data collection.

ACTIVITY

List at least five ways of collecting information for educational research.

6.1.1 OBSERVATION METHOD

Ø      Most commonly used.

Ø      It systematically planned.

Ø      It relies on seeing, hearing, testing and smelling things. It does not depend on getting information from someone else.

Advantages

Ø      Subjective bias is limited – it avoids report bias from someone.

Ø      It overcomes language barriers.

Ø      Information obtained under this method relates to what is correctly happening

(very natural).

Ø      It can be carried out at any time.

Disadvantages

Ø      Possibility of misinterpretation of phenomena.

Ø      Some aspect of study not easy to observe.

6.1.2 INTERVIEWS METHOD

This involves questioning or discussion. The researcher becomes interviewer and the respondents become interviewees. The technique involves face to face interaction leading to obtaining information. This method can be through:

a)      Personal interviews

Ø      Face to face contact with a respondent (asking and answering question).

b)      Telephone interviews

Ø      Method of collecting information on telephone.

The questions you ask can be in three forms (forms of interview):

1.      Structured. This provides limited responses. E.g. Yes, No.

2.      Semi structured. This is open and allows individual responses. For example, what are the most events you remember?

3.      Unstructured. Opportunity of a researcher to ask broad questions and respondent to answer broadly.

Advantages of interview

1.      It is quite flexible.

2.      Information can be obtained in details.

3.      Information can be obtained very quickly.

4.      Not expensive in terms of cost.

5.      High rate of response.

Disadvantages of interview

1.      Can be expensive in terms of telephone interview.

2.      Language can be a barrier.

3.      Can be led to bias aspect from the interview.

4.      Personal issues can interfere with the process.

6.1.3 QUESTIONNARES

It involves the use of written down items to which the respondent has to   respond in writing. These items are in the form of statement or questions. The questionnaire is given or mailed to the person who will provide information.

Principles of good questionnaire

1. Items should be clear – grammar and spelling must be correct.
2. A question/item should represent one idea.
3. Avoid long and complicated items.
4. Avoid biased questions.

Advantages:

Ø      Can reach distant subjects.

Ø      Free from injection of interviews bias.

Ø      Respondents get enough time to answer.

Ø      Large samples can be used.

Disadvantages:

Ø      Very expensive in terms of preparation and cost.

Ø      Low rate of returns.

Ø      Cannot be used to illiterate people (Only educated or literate).

Ø      It needs high cooperation.

Ø      Possibility of misinterpretation of questions.

Ø      Personal bias from respondent is high.

6.1.4 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

Focus group discussions have become a popular method of obtaining information regarding numerous topics. Focus groups are a good method to get people involved in the decision making process and have them provide their input regarding the topic.

What is a Focus Group?

A focus group could be defined as a group of interacting individuals having some common interest or characteristics, brought together by a moderator, who uses the group and its interaction as a way to gain information about a specific or focused issue.

Focus Group can:

·         Give information on how groups of people think or feel about a particular topic.

·         Give greater insight into why certain opinions are held.

·         Help improve the planning and design of new programs.

·         Provide a means of evaluating existing programs.

·         Produce insights for developing strategies for outreach.

Focus Groups cannot:

• Give valid information about individuals.
• Valid "before-and-after" information (how things have changed over time).
• Information that you can apply generally to other groups of people.

Conducting a Focus Group

Conducting a focus group may involve:

·         Developing the questions

·         Conducting an interview

·         Analyzing and reporting

Preparing for Focus Group Discussion

When preparing for a focus group discussions there are several considerations including what questions will be asked, who will participate, where will the discussions be held, and who will conduct the sessions? The first order of business is to develop a discussion guide. The following steps need to be taken into account:

Developing the Discussion Guide. The discussion guide contains the questions which will be asked to participants during the discussion sessions. Approximately 10 to 15 questions should be used for the discussion per session.

Reserve a Time and Place. Reserving a time and place to conduct the discussion is something which should be done well in advance to the actual date of the discussion sessions.

Provide an Incentive For Participation. Individuals taking part in a discussion session should be compensated for their participation.

Determine What Equipment is needed. The discussion team must determine how much detailed the information they want to obtain from the discussion. This will determine whether to use audio tape, videotape, or simply take notes.

Selection of Focus Group Discussion Participants

Choosing the Number and Size of the Groups

A good size for a discussion group is between 8 to 10 participants per session. The number of participants per session will be based upon the potential pool of participants.

Establish a Pool of Potential Participants. Once the number of participants has been determined, it is necessary to establish a pool of potential participants.

Assume Some Participants Will Not Show up. It is difficult to be assured that all participants will show up for the discussion. Some individuals may forget, run into a scheduling conflict, or just decide not to take part.

Contact Potential Participants. After obtaining a pool of potential participants, the individuals should be contacted by telephone with information regarding the discussion session. If they are interested, then provide the date, time, and location of the session.

Follow-up Letter. Approximately a week to ten days prior to the discussion session a follow-up letter should be mailed to individuals who agreed to take part.

Preparation for the Discussion Sessions

• Room Configuration. The discussion room and viewing room should be setup and ready for the discussion when participants arrive.
• Video Equipment. If the sessions will be videotaped it is necessary to arrive well in advance to the start of the discussion to setup the equipment.
• Refreshments. Refreshments should be placed on a separate table in the discussion room.
• Other considerations. Other items which need to be considered include name tags, consent forms, and payment to participants.
• Moderating the sessions. Experienced focus group moderator should conduct the sessions.

• Keep the Conversation flowing. The moderator should try to keep the discussion as informal as possible and should encourage all participants to speak whatever is on their mind.
• Length of the Discussion. The discussion session should last approximately one and a half hours.
• Be neutral. One of the benefits of having an outside person moderate the discussion is that the person can be neutral. Some people may not like the topic being discussed and should be allowed to voice their opinion.
• Talk to Members of the Discussion Team. During the discussion session, the moderator should take time to confer with the members of the discussion team to determine if further issues should be explored.

Analysis of the Results

• Review Notes. After a discussion session is completed, have a look at your notes and highlight items you wished to review in greater detail when viewing the videotape.
• Review the Videotapes. The videotapes should be reviewed shortly after the completion of the discussion session.
• Writing the Report. The written report should follow the questions contained in the discussion guide.

ADVANTAGES OF USING FOCUS GROUPS

• People naturally interact and are influenced by others.
• Provide data more quickly and at lower cost.
• Requires less preparation.
• Interact directly with respondents.
• Very flexible.
• Results are easy to understand.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING FOCUS GROUPS

• Have less control over group.
• Produces relatively chaotic data making data analysis more difficult.
• Limit ability to generalize to larger populations.
• Requires carefully trained interviewer.
• Uncertainty about accuracy of what participants say.
• Focus group discussion will help to pool the information to solve the task.

SUMMARY

In this lecture we have learnt that a researcher needs to develop instruments with which to collect the necessary information. In educational research, the most commonly used instruments are questionnaires, interviews, observations and Focus Group discussion. We have also discussed in details the advantages and limitations of each instrument.

EXERCISE

1.       Compare and contrast questionnaires and interviews as research tools. 2.       Discuss the advantages of using telephone interviews.

FURTHER READINGS

Mugenda, O. M & Mugenda, A. G. (2003).  Research Methods. Nairobi. : Acts Press. Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press.

LECTURE SEVEN

POPULATION, SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES

INTRODUCTION

In lecture six we learnt on how to develop research tools for data collection. In this lecture we are going to discuss about population, sample and sampling procedures.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture you should be able to: Ø      Define population and sample. Ø      List and discuss different sampling techniques. Ø      Choose relevant sampling technique for a study.

SUBTOPICS

1. Define population and sample.
2. Probability and non-probability.
3. Sampling methods/techniques.
4. Errors in sampling.

7.1 POPULATION

Successful research practice is based on focused problem definition. In sampling, this includes defining the population from which our sample is drawn. A population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic one wish to understand. Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information from everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that population.

Sometimes that which defines a population is obvious. For example, a school manager needs to decide whether a batch of pupils to be admitted to his school must have attained a higher performance in standard seven exams. In this case, the batch is the population.

Although the population of interest often consists of physical objects, sometimes we need to sample over time, space, or some combination of these dimensions. For instance, an investigation of supermarket staffing could examine checkout line length at various times, or a study on endangered penguins might aim to understand their usage of various hunting grounds over time. For the time dimension, the focus may be on periods or discrete occasions.

This situation often arises when we seek knowledge about the cause system of which the observed population is an outcome. In such cases, sampling theory may treat the observed population as a sample from a larger 'super population'. For example, a researcher might study the success rate of a new 'quit smoking' program on a test group of 100 smokers, in order to predict the effects of the program if it were made available nationwide. Here the superpopulation is "everybody in the country, given access to this treatment", a group which does not yet exists, since the program isn't yet available to all.

Note also that the population from which the sample is drawn may not be the same as the population about which we actually want information. Often there is large but not complete overlap between these two groups due to frame issues. Sometimes they may be entirely separate. For instance, we might study rats in order to get a better understanding of human health, or we might study records from people born in 2009 in order to make predictions about people born in 2012.

Time spent in making the sampled population and population of concern precise is often well spent, because it raises many issues, ambiguities and questions that would otherwise have been overlooked at this stage.

7.2 SAMPLING

Sampling is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a population to yield some knowledge about the whole population, especially for the purposes of making predictions based on statistical inference.

Researchers rarely survey the entire population for two reasons (Adèr, Mellenbergh, & Hand, 2008): the cost is too high, and the population is dynamic in that the individuals making up the population may change over time. The three main advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower, data collection is faster, and since the data set is smaller it is possible to ensure homogeneity and to improve the accuracy and quality of the data.

The sampling process comprises several stages:

• Defining the population of concern.
• Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure.
• Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame.
• Determining the sample size.
• Implementing the sampling plan.
• Sampling and data collecting.

7.3 PROBABILITY AND NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

Probability sampling is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. Probability sampling includes: Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Stratified Sampling, Probability Proportional to Size Sampling, and Cluster or Multistage Sampling.

Example:

We want to estimate the total income of adults living in a given street. We visit each household in that street, identify all adults living there, and randomly select one adult from each household. (For example, we can allocate each person a random number, generated from a uniform distribution between 0 and 1, and select the person with the highest number in each household). We then interview the selected person and find their income. People living on their own are certain to be selected, so we simply add their income to our estimate of the total. But a person living in a household of two adults has only a one-in-two chance of selection. To reflect this, when we come to such a household, we would count the selected person's income twice towards the total. (In effect, the person who is selected from that household is taken as representing the person who isn't selected.)

In the above example, not everybody has the same probability of selection; what makes it a probability sample is the fact that each person's probability is known.

These various ways of probability sampling have two things in common:

·         Every element has a known nonzero probability of being sampled and

·         Involves random selection at some point.

Nonprobability sampling

Non Probability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population have no chance of selection or where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors. These conditions give rise to exclusion bias, placing limits on how much information a sample can provide about the population. Information about the relationship between sample and population is limited, making it difficult to extrapolate from the sample to the population.

Nonprobability Sampling includes accidental sampling, Quota Sampling and Purposive Sampling.

Example:

We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first person to answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a nonprobability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer than an employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.

In addition, nonresponse effects may turn any probability design into a nonprobability design if the characteristics of nonresponse are not well understood, since nonresponse effectively modifies each element's probability of being sampled.

7.4 SAMPLING METHODS/TECHNIQUES

Within any of the two types of sampling forms identified above, a variety of sampling methods can be employed, individually or in combination. Factors commonly influencing the choice between these designs include:

• Nature and quality of the sampling frame.
• Availability of auxiliary information about units on the sampling frame.
• Accuracy requirements and the need to measure accuracy.
• Whether detailed analysis of the sample is expected.
• Cost/operational concerns.

Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample (SRS) of a given size, all such subsets of the sampling frame are given an equal probability. In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or device from which a sample is drawn. It is a list of all those within a population who can be sampled, and may include individuals, households or institutions.

Each element of the sampling frame thus has an equal probability of selection. The sampling frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimizes bias and simplifies analysis of results. In particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a good indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of results.

However, SRS can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness of the selection may result in a sample that doesn't reflect the makeup of the population. For instance, a simple random sample of ten people from a given country will on average produce five men and five women, but any given trial is likely to over-represent one sex and under-represent the other. Systematic and stratified techniques, discussed below, attempt to overcome this problem by using information about the population to choose a more representative sample.

SRS may also be cumbersome and tedious when sampling from an unusually large target population. In some cases, investigators are interested in research questions specific to subgroups of the population. For example, researchers might be interested in examining whether cognitive ability as a predictor of job performance is equally applicable across racial groups. SRS cannot accommodate the needs of researchers in this situation because it does not provide sub samples of the population. Stratified sampling, which is discussed below, addresses this weakness of SRS.

Systematic sampling

Relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then onwards. It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list. A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').

As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling. It is easy to implement and the stratification induced can make it efficient, if the variable by which the list is ordered is correlated with the variable of interest. 'Every 10th' sampling is especially useful for efficient sampling from databases.

Example:

Suppose we wish to sample people from a long street that starts in a poor district (house #1) and ends in an expensive district (house #1000). A simple random selection of addresses from this street could easily end up with too many from the high end and too few from the low end (or vice versa), leading to an unrepresentative sample. Selecting (e.g.) every 10th street number along the street ensures that the sample is spread evenly along the length of the street, representing all of these districts. (Note that if we always start at house #1 and end at #991, the sample is slightly biased towards the low end; by randomly selecting the start between #1 and #10, this bias is eliminated.)

However, systematic sampling is especially vulnerable to periodicities in the list. If periodicity is present and the period is a multiple or factor of the interval used, the sample is especially likely to be unrepresentative of the overall population, making the scheme less accurate than simple random sampling.

Example:

Consider a street where the odd-numbered houses are all on the north (expensive) side of the road and the even-numbered houses are all on the south (cheap) side. Under the sampling scheme given above, it is impossible' to get a representative sample; either the houses sampled will all be from the odd-numbered, expensive side, or they will all be from the even-numbered, cheap side.

Another drawback of systematic sampling is that even in scenarios where it is more accurate than SRS; its theoretical properties make it difficult to quantify that accuracy. For example, in the two examples of systematic sampling that are given above, much of the potential sampling error is due to variation between neighboring houses - but because this method never selects two neighboring houses, the sample will not give us any information on that variation.

Stratified sampling

Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population; out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. There are several potential benefits to stratified sampling.

First, dividing the population into distinct, independent strata can enable researchers to draw inferences about specific subgroups that may be lost in a more generalized random sample.

Second, utilizing a stratified sampling method can lead to more efficient statistical estimates provided that each stratum is proportional to the group’s size in the population.

Third, it is sometimes the case that data are more readily available for individual, pre-existing strata within a population than for the overall population; in such cases, using a stratified sampling approach may be more convenient than aggregating data across groups.

Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different sampling approaches can be applied to different strata, potentially enabling researchers to use the approach best suited for each identified subgroup within the population.

There are, however, some potential drawbacks to using stratified sampling. First, identifying strata and implementing such an approach can increase the cost and complexity of sample selection, as well as leading to increased complexity of population estimates. Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be related to some, but not to others, further complicating the design, and potentially reducing the utility of the strata. Finally, in some cases, stratified sampling can potentially require a larger sample than would other methods.

A stratified sampling approach is most effective when the following three conditions are met:

·         Variability within strata is minimized.

·         Variability between strata is maximized.

·         The variables upon which the population is stratified are strongly correlated with the desired dependent variable.

Advantages of Stratified Sampling over other sampling methods include:

·         Focuses on important subpopulations and ignores irrelevant ones.

·         Allows use of different sampling techniques for different subpopulations.

·         Improves the accuracy/efficiency of estimation.

·         Permits greater balancing of statistical power of tests of differences between strata by sampling equal numbers from strata varying widely in size.

Disadvantages of Stratified Sampling include:

·         Requires selection of relevant stratification variables which can be difficult.

·         Is not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups.

·         Can be expensive to implement.

Cluster sampling

Sometimes it is cheaper to 'cluster' the sample in some way e.g. by selecting respondents from certain areas only, or certain periods of time only.

Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' or 'multistage sampling': in the first stage a sample of areas is chosen; in the second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.

This can reduce travel and other administrative costs. It also means that one does not need a sampling frame listing all elements in the target population. Cluster sampling generally increases the variability of sample estimates above that of simple random sampling, depending on how the clusters differ between themselves, as compared with the within-cluster variation.

Nevertheless, some of the disadvantages of cluster sampling are the reliance of sample estimate precision on the actual clusters chosen. If clusters chosen are biased in a certain way, inferences drawn about population parameters from these sample estimates will be far off from being accurate.

Quota sampling

In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. When using this strategy, researchers identify important characteristics that they already know the target population possesses, and then they select the nonrandom (and therefore biased) sample in such a way as to make it correspond to the population with regard to these known characteristics.

Step by step Quota Sampling

·         The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into exclusive subgroups.

·         Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population; this same proportion will be applied in the sampling process.

• Finally, the researcher selects subjects from the various subgroups while taking into consideration the proportions noted in the previous step.
• The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. It also allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each subgroup.

Examples of Quota Sampling

In a study wherein the researcher likes to compare the academic performance of the different high school class levels, its relationship with gender and socioeconomic status, the researcher first identifies the subgroups.

Usually, the subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher divides the entire population into class levels, intersected with gender and socioeconomic status. Then, he takes note of the proportions of these subgroups in the entire population and then samples each subgroup accordingly.

When to use Quota Sampling

• The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study. If a study aims to investigate a trait or a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type of sampling is the ideal technique.

·         Quota sampling is useful when time is limited, a sampling frame is not available, the research budget is very tight or when detailed accuracy is not important. Subsets are chosen and then either convenience or judgment sampling is used to choose people from each subset. The researcher decides how many of each category is selected.

• Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between subgroups. In some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of another subgroup. In such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this type of sampling technique.

Disadvantages of Quota Sampling

It may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the population. In some cases it is not. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the population were taken into account in forming the subgroups.

In the process of sampling these subgroups, other traits in the sample may be overrepresented. In a study that considers gender, socioeconomic status and religion as the basis of the subgroups, the final sample may have skewed representation of age, race, educational attainment, marital status and a lot more.

Convenience sampling or Accidental Sampling

Convenience sampling (sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling) is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected because it is readily available and convenient. It may be through meeting the person or including a person in the sample when one meets them or chosen by finding them through technological means such as the internet or through phone. The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough. For example, if the interviewer were to conduct such a survey at a shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to those available there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other members of society in such an area, if the survey were to be conducted at different times of day and several times per week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing. Several important considerations for researchers using convenience samples include:

1. Are there controls within the research design or experiment which can serve to lessen the impact of a non-random convenience sample, thereby ensuring the results will be more representative of the population?
2. Is there good reason to believe that a particular convenience sample would or should respond or behave differently than a random sample from the same population?
3. Is the question being asked by the research one that can adequately be answered using a convenience sample?

In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample.

Sampling and data collection

Good data collection involves:

• Following the defined sampling process.
• Keeping the data in time order.
• Noting comments and other contextual events.
• Recording non-responses.

7.5 ERRORS IN SAMPLE SURVEYS

In statistics, sampling error or estimation error is the amount of inaccuracy in estimating some value that is caused by only a portion of a population (i.e. a sample) rather than the whole population. This amount of inaccuracy is commonly referred to as an error. Sampling error can be measured and quoted in many different ways, but in practice the reported error itself is almost always an estimate of the real error rather than an absolute measure of the error (which would usually require analyzing the entire population). Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample design. They include:

1. Selection bias: When the true selection probabilities differ from those assumed in calculating the results.
2. Random sampling error: Random variation in the results due to the elements in the sample being selected at random.
3. Over sampling. Choice-based sampling is one of the stratified sampling strategies. In choice-based sampling, the data are stratified on the target and a sample is taken from each stratum so that the rare target class will be more represented in the sample. The model is then built on this biased sample. The effects of the input variables on the target are often estimated with more precision with the choice-based sample even when a smaller overall sample size is taken compared to a random sample. The results usually must be adjusted to correct for the over sampling.

Survey results are typically subject to some error. Total errors can be classified into sampling errors and non-sampling errors. The term "error" here includes systematic biases as well as random errors.
SUMMARY

This was one of the longest lectures in this module. We have discussed in length different sampling techniques their advantages and disadvantages. We have discussed sampling processes and determined how a sample should be to lead to sensible inferences. Sampling makes it possible to estimate the characteristics of a larger group by examining the characteristics of a smaller group drawn from the larger one. The larger, entire group is referred to as a population. The smaller group drawn from the population is called a sample. To provide an accurate estimate of the characteristics of a population, a sampling procedure should provide a sample that resembles the population as closely as possible. Random sampling is the best procedure for drawing a sample from a population, since it maximizes the probability that the sample will be like the population in all respects except chance variations. Biased sampling is the worst way to draw a sample; since it allows uncontrolled biases into the sample, we no longer know how closely the biased sample resembles the overall population. Quota sampling attempts to upgrade nonrandom sampling by removing some of the most obvious biases. Systematic sampling is very similar to random sampling; it starts at a random point in a population and then systematically selects members for the sample. Stratified sampling is useful when we have no list of the population or when want to guarantee that we shall have enough members of subgroups within our sample to allow us to perform further analyses of the data.

EXERCISE

Discuss the difference between convenient sampling and quota sampling. Provide relevant examples from educational issues.

FURTHER READINGS

Adder, H. J., Mellenbergh, G. J., & Hand, D. J. (2008). Advising on research methods: A consultant's companion. The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. Chambers, R. L, & Skinner, C J (Eds.) (2003). Analysis of Survey Data. Wiley Cochran, G. (1977). Sampling Techniques (Third ed.). Wiley.  Lohr, L. (1999). Sampling: Design and Analysis. Duxbury: Mcbrough. Smith, T. M. F. (1984). "Present Position and Potential Developments: Some Personal Views: Sample surveys". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General) 147.

LECTURE EIGHT

REVIEWING LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Many students are instructed, as part of their research program, to perform a literature review, without always understanding what a literature review is. In this lecture we shall learn the review of literature. Most are aware that it is a process of gathering information from other sources and documenting it, but few have any idea of how to evaluate the information, or how to present it.

             

             

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: ·         Describe the purpose of literature review. ·         Identify the scope of literature review. ·         Describe steps in carrying out literature review. ·         Identify sources of information.

SUBTOPICS

1. What is literature review?
2. The purpose/importance of literature review.
3. Steps in conducting literature review.
4. Sources of information.
5. Organizing the review chapter.

8.1 WHAT IS LITERATURE REVIEW?

A literature review can be defined as a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. It is the process of reviewing and analyzing the work of literature in relation to the specified topic in research.

A literature review is an evaluative report of studies found in the literature related to your selected area. The review should describe, summarize, evaluate and clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical basis for the research and help you determine the nature of your own research. Select a limited number of works that are central to your area rather than trying to collect a large number of works that are not as closely connected to your topic area.

A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic.

8.2 PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review goes beyond the search for information and includes the identification and articulation of relationships between the literature and your field of research. While the form of the literature review may vary with different types of studies, the basic purposes remain constant:

Ø      Provide a context for the research.

Ø      Justify the research.

Ø      Ensure the research hasn't been done before. Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done.

Ø      Show where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge.

Ø      Enable the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject.

Ø      Illustrate how the subject has been studied previously.

Ø      Highlight flaws in previous research.

Ø      Outline gaps in previous research.

Ø      Show that the work is adding to the understanding and knowledge in the field.

Ø      Help refine, refocus or even change the topic.

Ø      The literature review provides a background to the study being proposed.

Ø      The literature review gives your reader background information regarding your own research, demonstrates your familiarity with research in your field, and shows how your work contributes one more piece in the puzzle of expanding the knowledge base in your field.

Ø      Discovering important variables relevant to the topic.

Ø      Relating ideas and theory to applications.

The above purposes are not ranked in order of importance. In many cases, there may be merging of purposes or different manifestations.

8.3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Sources are generally described as primary, secondary, or tertiary.  Primary sources are materials that you are directly writing about, the raw materials of your own research.

Secondary sources are books and articles in which other researchers report the results of their research. Examples of secondary sources include conferences, proceedings, journals, and books. Journal articles are often the most current source of information on a topic of study.

Tertiary sources are books and articles based on secondary sources, on the research of others. Tertiary sources synthesize and explain the work of others and might be useful early in your research, but they are generally weak support for your own arguments. Examples of tertiary sources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, guides, and handbooks. Dictionaries and encyclopedias are excellent starting points for research. They can provide general background information to help narrow or broaden the focus of a topic, define unfamiliar terms, and offer bibliographies of other sources.

8.4 STEPS IN CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW

Evaluating the credibility of sources is one of the most difficult aspects, especially with the ease of finding information on the internet or with the availability of too much sources of information including books available everywhere in the streets. The following are some useful tips when carrying out literature review:

• Be familiar with what is available in the library before beginning the literature review.
• Make the list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search.
• With the key words and phrases related to your study now you should go the source of literatures in library or check the internet.
• The easiest way is to scan the work, using the abstract and introduction as guides. This helps to eliminate the non-relevant work and also some of the lower quality research. Failure to do this will completely invalidate the literature review and potentially undermine the research project. Any research that may be relevant should be moved to the shortlist folder.
• The next stage is to critically evaluate the sources or materials and decide if the research is of sufficient quality. Think about it this way: The temptation is to try to include as many sources as possible, because it is easy to fall into the trap of thinking that a long bibliography equates to a good paper. A smaller number of quality sources is far preferable than a long list of irrelevant materials.
• Check the credentials of any source upon which you rely heavily for the literature review. If their name keeps cropping up, and they have written many papers, the source is usually OK.
• Look for agreements. Good research should have been replicated by other independent researchers, with similar results, showing that the information is usually fairly safe to use.
• You should know some good and reputable sources to look at.
• Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in an orderly manner. Such organization, analysis and reporting represents the hardest part of literature review.

Conducting a good literature review is a matter of experience.

ACTIVITY

Choose a topic of your interest and write a three page literature review.

8.5 ORGANISING THE LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTER

8.5.1 Writing the introduction

In the introduction, you should:

• Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an appropriate context for reviewing the literature.
• Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship; or a single problem or new perspective of immediate interest.
• Establish the author's reason for reviewing the literature; explain the criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing literature and the organization of the review; and, when necessary, state the scope of the literature.

8.5.2 Writing the body

In the body, you should:

• Group research studies and other types of literature according to common denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, chronology, etc.
• Summarize individual studies or articles with as much or as little detail as each merits according to its comparative importance in the literature.
• Provide the reader with strong sentences at beginnings of paragraphs, "signposts" throughout, and summary sentences at intermediate points in the review to aid in understanding comparisons and analyses.

8.5.3 Writing the conclusion

In the conclusion, you should:

• Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction.
• Evaluate the current "state of the art" for the body of knowledge reviewed, pointing out major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and findings, and areas or issues pertinent to future study.
• Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of the literature review and a larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific endeavor, or a profession.

SUMMARY

In this lecture we have learnt that, literature review involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem being investigated. It aims at obtaining detailed knowledge of the topic under study. The important idea is that you really understand what others in your field have accomplished and how your work differs from the works of others. In a literature review, you demonstrate your understanding of the relevant works of others and your ability to summarize this information for the convenience of your readers. A recommended beginning search plan has been described. Understanding how the literature search relates with other steps in the research process helps form a good plan. Guidance has been given for finding sources, for determining if your literature is relevant to the topic, and for scaling your search to a manageable amount. Useful tips have been given to help you track and summarize information so that it becomes useful for your research purposes. Hopefully, these sections on a good literature review, will contribute to the successful conclusion of your research project.

EXERCISE

List four indicators of a good review of literature. Discuss the importance of literature review.

FURTHER READINGS

Mugenda, O. M, & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research Methods. Nairobi: Acts Press. Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press Hart, C. (1998). Doing a Literature Review. London: Sage.

LECTURE NINE

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

INTRODUCTION

To plan things is a very important aspect in our daily lives. Whenever we want to do something of value, we always plan how to go about it. Our government also has to have a tentative plan of budget of how to collect revenue and spend it. Without planning the government would fail to implement all the projects designed for national development. Roads, bridges, railways and other infrastructures could never be constructed well if there were no plans.

Similarly, no one would start building his/her house by rushing out to dig a hole in the ground for foundation without knowing in details what the house will look like, what facilities will be required and the expenses that will be required. Even then, after you have made all these decisions, do you immediately begin digging? Not at all my friend! Yet another phase remains. The architect now will need to draw a plan of the entire structure, floor by floor. After that a budget is set and the fundi may now start digging the foundation.

In the same way, we cannot conduct a research without a plan. This plan is what we call a research proposal. The detail of it is going to be discussed in this lecture.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture you should be able to: Define what a research proposal is. Discuss why a research proposal is written before conducting the actual research/field work. State the basic components of a research proposal. Develop a research proposal.

SUBTOPICS

1. Meaning of a research proposal.
2. The purpose and importance of research proposal.
3. Steps in developing a research proposal.
4. Components of a research proposal.

ACTIVITY 1

Before reading this lecture, try to answer the following questions: What is a proposal? Who reads a proposal and why? Why do we need to design a proposal before doing the research?

CONTENT

9.1  MEANING OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A research proposal is a plan designed in order to be followed in carrying about a research project. It is a document that outlines how the research should be undertaken. It specifies the objectives of the study and the methods by which the study will follow. It indicates how the proposed research is likely to develop. Research proposal includes discussing when, where, how and why the research is going to be started and accomplished.

9.2 THE PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

As we have learnt in the introduction part of this lecture, a research without a pre-drawn plan is like an ocean journey without mariner’s compass. Research proposal therefore, serves the following purposes:

Ø      A research proposal is a planning tool. A research or project proposal is a map or sketch of activities to be executed, resources to be employed, a time frame to be adhered to, etc. In this case, a research proposal is an indication of execution plan. For any undertaking worthy its recognition, there has to be a plan for it.

Ø      It helps the researcher to think over important issues about the study such as how to collect information and where the information is available. This enables the researcher to consider making various decisions before undertaking the study.

Ø      It helps the researcher to judge or evaluate the study looking at difficulties which are likely to occur and make necessary corrections.

Ø      Without a plan, research work becomes unfocused and aimless. Thus the researcher may not be able to decide which is relevant and which is not. Pre-drawn plan makes a research focused and effective.

Ø      Your research proposal convinces others including your readers and supervisors that your research is going to be well conducted and the results are likely to benefit the society. The proposal is given to supervisors and members of the academic staff for comments and analysis before you proceed to data collection.

Ø      With this proposal, you would be requesting permission to start or undertake a research or study on a particular topic.

Ø      Discuss in detail how you plan to go about the research, and include any expenses, permissions or other requirements you need for your research.

Ø      Proposal discusses the resources you plan to consult to inform your work, including texts, people, documentaries and interviews.

Ø      Research proposal concludes with a discussion of the outcomes or benefits you anticipate your research to yield, along with a justification for why those outcomes or benefits are important.

Ø      Research often involves contracts between different individuals or groups of people. The proposal states clearly what each party is expected to bring to the research, how resources will be used, and when the research should be completed.

ACTIVITY 2

Choose a topic and formulate a research problem and start writing a proposal

9.3 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research proposal.

Given below are some of the basic steps that are helpful when developing a research proposal.

Step 1: Identifying the Problem

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

Step 2: Narrowing Your Research Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your research. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the research. Working with an overly broad topic, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a single research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research and write about it. Narrowing your focusnarrowing your focusThe process of identifying a specific angle from which to approach a broad topic in order to limit it and make it more manageable. is essential in making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Step 3: Formulating Statement of the Problem

After analyzing and narrowing the problem, the next stage is to formulate and state the problem statement. Stating and Defining the problem is important because it enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken and what one hopes to achieve with the study results. This is important to highlight when one presents their project to stake holders (community members, relevant ministries and donor agencies who need to support one’s study or give their consent).

Stating the problem includes the following aspects:

·         A concise description of the nature of the problem (the discrepancy between what is and what should be) and its size, distribution and severity of the problem (who is affected, where, since when, and what are the consequences for those affected and for the services).

·         An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a discussion of why certain factors need more investigation if the problem is to be fully understood.

·         A brief description of any solutions to the problem that have been tried in the past, how well they have worked, and why further research is needed (justification for your study).

·         A description of the type of information expected to result from the project and how this information will be used to help solve the problem.

Step 4: Designing the Study

Research design is very important part of the research. We discussed importance of research design in lecture five. Here the researcher needs to state the design he/she will use and the justification for using such a design.

Step 5: Formulating a Research Questions or Hypothesis

In formulating research questions, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

In some cases especially with quantitative research it is advisable to formulate hypothesis rather than research questions. However, if you have difficulties in formulating hypothesis, research questions can be used

Step 6: Reviewing Literature

Literature review is the systematic identification and analysis of documents containing information related to the present or proposed study. We conduct literature review for the purpose of knowing what has been done before so as to avoid duplication, providing justification for the study and pointing out some research strategies, methods and tools that have been found productive and faulty. You should devote your time in studying some relevant literature before you begin writing a proposal.

Step 7: Writing a Research Proposal

A research proposalresearch proposalA brief document that includes a writer’s main research question, related subquestions, working thesis, and plan for gathering information. is a brief document that summarizes the work that you will accomplish. Your purpose in writing a proposal is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, and related sub questions. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

 

9.4 COMPONENTS/FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research proposals come in different formats. Often they are tailored towards the   needs of different clients. Format refers to the general arrangement or organisation of the proposed study. However, the format we are going to discuss is commonly used in many fields of study including education. Most of elements of research proposals are fairly common regardless of purpose and type of research. Most of research proposals for students meant for academic work have three main parts or chapters. Let us now discuss this in details.

Preliminary Section

Before the researcher describes what is going to do, he or she must provide us with relevant information regarding:

• Information about himself/herself ( the author).
• The topic/title of the study.
• The institution he/she is affiliated to.
• The date of which the research is to be done.
• What is inside the proposal that is table of contents?

Chapter One: Introduction

This is the first section of the research proposal which is normally introduction part that contains the following sections:

(i)     Background of the Study

This section provides background information required to understand the problem. It should place the research problem in its historical context. It should start from broad to specific when providing information about the problem. It should therefore reflect where the problem came from. Whichever option one takes the background or introduction to the problem focus on the direction leading to the study. In a number of ways it may be easier to think of this section as a review of relevant literature. One must cite previous projects and studies that are similar to what one is  proposing, highlighting deficiencies of previous undertaking and thereby giving direction towards the importance and rationale for the research.

(ii) Statement of the Problem

A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive.  It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the who or what, the where, the when and the why of the problem situation. Under this section, the research problem should be well defined, expanded, and clearly stated. The statement should declare what exactly is the problem and what should be done and why research it. Therefore the statement of the problem should be clear, concise, brief, relevant and logical.

(iii) The Purpose and Objectives of the Study

Research objectives should be ranked in a hierarchical form. This is because there are at least two levels of objectives. As it says, the first category of objectives refers to broad developmental goal within which the project/research proposal falls. The purpose/aim of the study is a clear statement of the general intention of the study while specific objectives are finer and specific statement that come from the purpose. Specific objectives are derivatives of the general objectives. The Specific objectives are operational in nature.

(iv) Research Questions/ Hypothesis

Hypotheses are tentative answers to a research question. They are tentative because they have not been affirmed or rejected yet. They can only be affirmed or rejected via the rigor of research as defined above, in which we defined research as a systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a certain question or solve a problem.

The notion of research question emanates from the effort to find a solution to the problem at hand. A question needs to be posed and the answer will be found during the study.  However, the researcher cannot use both hypothesis and research questions at the same time. The researcher has to choose one. The choice of using one depends on the design of the study, purpose of the study, methodology and interest of the researcher.

(v) The Scope of the Study

The proposal also should state the boundaries of the study in terms of breadth, depth, respondents and geographical spread. The scope of the study simply makes reference to the need to put boundaries around what is studied and is not going to be studied. It also is a task of putting boundaries within which the research will or will not apply. The demarcation of the study is very important because the research to be completed needs specific time and resources.

(vi) The Significance of the Study

In more concrete terms, the significance of the study concretely spells out the benefits and contributions that will come from the study. Often, these benefits are seen to come in three areas: Scholarship and literature, improving policy and improving practice. It states the value of the study findings to the policy makers, academicians, institutions and society in general.

(vii) Limitations of the Study

These are potential obstacles or limitations a researcher is likely to face during the research process. It includes methodological problems, unavailability of data, ethical issues and reluctance of the respondents. Limitations are conditions that restrict the scope of the study or may affect the outcome and cannot be controlled by the researcher.  As an example of a limitation is that a district might only allow the researcher to collect data during a certain time of the school year, or that selected participants might not answer truthfully or at all. Although some problems cannot be removed completely the researcher should state the ways he/she use to reduce the problems.

Chapter Two: Review of literature

This is the second chapter of a research proposal that provides evidence that the researcher has systematically identified, documented and analyzed literature related to the study. Literature review has so many advantages to a researcher:

·         Defines the boundaries of the study.

·         Establishes the size and extent of research.

·         Considers the procedures and the instruments which he will use in his research. After having considered other researchers' procedures and instruments, the researcher becomes more simplified in the choice of his own.

·         Sees his/her own problem in better perspective through a better understanding of the underlying theory. This enables him/her to establish whether his/her research will make a contribution and what the value of his contribution would be.

·         Avoids unnecessary repetition of research already undertaken. A researcher often develops a brilliant insight into how to tackle a problem, only to discover, through a study of relevant literature, that someone else has already done so.

·         Better evaluates the significance of his own findings. This applies especially in respect of which techniques were used, and which contributions were made to gaining a better understanding of the problem.

·         Carries out his research more purposefully. In time he learns to eliminate the unnecessary. He learns from the successes and failures of others.

NOTE

This section is discussed in details in lecture eight. You can take time to refer to the lecture for more understanding. However, it should be noted that literature review is not a mere listings of books you have consulted.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

This section of the proposal is regarded as “the heart of the research” since it explains how the study will be carried out. It refers to the methods you chose to answer your research questions. The purpose of the methodology section is to show how the research questions previously raised in the proposal will be answered in the most rigorous way possible. In order to enable this process to effectually take place, a project/research proposal must present clear methodology that is the methods that will be employed. The researcher also has to show why you decided upon the selected methodology, why have you decided to use certain methods of data gathering and why other methods are not appropriate. Depending on the methodology you have selected, under the methodology section, one  needs to include details about samples, study design, numbers of people to be contacted, method of data collection, methods of data analysis, ethical considerations etc.

(i) Research Design

This sub section spells out the design of the study and the reasons for the choice. There are so many designs depending on the nature of the study. You can read more about research designs in lecture five.

(ii) Area of Study

Geographical area to be covered by the study should be decided and specified in the proposal. The researcher should state the reasons for selecting such area.

(iii) Population, Sample and Sampling Procedures

The other aspect of methodology section of the research proposal responds to the question of who will take part in the study. This question focuses on the sampling procedures. Sampling is a critical technique in data collection. Empirical research almost always depends upon a sample which is assumed to accurately represent a population.  A sample can be grouped under two major types: probability and non-probability samples.

Probability sampling methods can further be classified in terms of the way they are generated. There include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling, and multi-stage sampling. The non-probability sampling method include: quota sampling, purposive/judgmental sampling, accidental sampling, availability sampling, and snowball sampling. This part was also discussed in previous lectures.

(iv) Data Collection

This part looks at the specific processes involved in data collection with a particular focus on research tools. Research tools include questionnaires, interviews, observations and other methods of your choice. For more details please read lecture six.

(v) Data Analysis Plan

The data you collected would make no sense until it answers the research questions. Having collected the data, the next important stage is data analysis. Data analysis is the process of looking at and summarizing data with the intent to extract useful information and develop conclusions. In quantitative research data is numerically represented. The analysis in quantitative research means the testing of hypothesis.

(vi) Time and Cost Budgets

Although this is not required in every proposal, the researcher should state the time for which the study should be carried out. Sometimes it is required for you to indicate in your proposal how much you will spend. Although this is not a must one should estimate the expected cost of the project.

Reference Section

This is not a methodology part but an independent section which requires you to list all sources that were consulted during writing of the proposal. Most common referencing system is from American Psychological Association (APA).

NOTE

·         Always maintain formal style when writing a research proposal. Do not include any feelings or personal interests you may have about the research, unless a research project assignment calls for it. ·         Write the research proposal in accordance with any additional requirements provided by your advisor or supervisor.

SUMMARY

This lecture has offered us guidelines on the preparation of a research proposal. I hope that you have gained an opportunity to systematically write a good proposal. In summarizing this lecture remember that we have discussed the following: ·         Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research questions or hypothesis, and developing a proposal. ·         A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the institution. ·         Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research. ·         A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer. ·         A good proposal expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research. ·         Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, sub questions, and working plan to an instructor for approval or feedback.

Mwakamele’s Components of a Research Proposal Preliminaries I. Introduction Background to the Study. Statement of the Research Problem. Purpose and Objectives of the Study. Research Questions/Hypothesis. Scope of the Study. Significance of the Study. Limitations. II. Review of Related Literature III Research Methodology Research Design. Area of Study. Population, Sample and Sampling Procedures. Data Collection procedures. Data Analysis. Budget. References

EXERCISE

Review the list of topics you created and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus. Write a two line statement on what subject of research you have   previously been involved in. Either in a group or individual capacity. (i)                 Develop and state your overall objective on research problem. (ii)              Present three specific objectives to the realization of your overall objective. (iii)            For each specific objective outline two activities that you will carry out. (iv)            Share the results of your exercise with your peers.

FURTHER READINGS

Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press Mwakamele, I., Bwatwa Y., & Ngonge, R. (2007). Independent Study. Dar es Salaam: Open University of Tanzania.

LECTURE TEN

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

INTRODUCTION

In lecture nine you learnt how to conduct research and fieldwork. In this lecture we will discuss how to analyze and interpret data. Data obtained from the field is difficult to interpret in raw form. Such data must be cleaned, coded, organized and analyzed. It is the result from such analysis that readers and other interested parties can understand the research result. However, the discussion of this lecture is limited to concepts without getting to complicated statistical computations.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: Describe steps in analyzing data. Interpret data.

SUBTOPICS

1. Data analysis.
2. Stages for data analysis.
3. Interpreting data.

CONTENT

10.1 DATA ANALYSIS

One of the issues that must be presented in the proposal is how the data generated from the field is going to be analysed. Having collected the data, the next important stage is data analysis.

From the qualitative research method, a lot of qualitative data will have been generated as texts, notes from interviews, and/or questionnaires. All these data has to be organised in order to respond to the research questions initially created. The question is how one proceeds in addressing this task.

In quantitative approach, hypothesis testing is carried out through the use of computational procedures and statistical tests. The collected data is then analyzed through statistical data processing tools. In the social sciences, the software, Statistical Packages for Social sciences (SPSS) is a typical such instrument. Data, often generated through pre-coded questionnaires, subsequently will be subjected to generate descriptive information as well as provide multivariate information.

ACTIVITY

Assuming you opted for the qualitative method of a research. Write a critical paragraph on how you will analyze the data you will collect, in a way that responds to research questions.

10.2 STAGES IN DATA ANALYSIS

Data Analysis involves examining, sorting, categorising, evaluating, comparing, synthesising and contemplating this mass of raw materials. In so doing one is searching for patterns that can be revealed from the data.

The actual data analysis involves a number of activities. The general process, however involves:

i) Data Preparation and Processing

The data preparation stage presupposes that the researcher has all the data one needs. The researcher must now decide upon the most efficient and effective strategy for analyzing the data. This is the stage where the researcher strives to conclude the research process and translate the data into charts, graphs, statistics and other elements of the final report. At this stage, the researcher is moving towards the point when he/she can draw from the data the fullest sense of their significance.

ii) Editing

Data editing is about detecting and correcting errors in the information returned by the respondents or other contributors.

iii) Coding 

Coding is a systematic way of understanding and keeping track of research data by labeling or extracting specific pieces of information, and attaching the labels to noticeable patterns in data that may seem overwhelming or disjointed.

iv) Classifying

Classifying involves assigning value to different sets of data. This serves the following purposes

• Recovery of the data objects if damaged or destroyed.
• Discovery, retention and disposal of data that has been archived.
• Security: Protection of the data from unauthorized use.

v) Describing

The description process responds to the question what. In research, describing data goes hand in hand with data interpretation. In describing data one engages in sorting out the data in their variables (variables are aspects of the data) and classifying them. 

vi) Analyzing

Data analysis is the process of looking at and summarizing data with the intent to extract useful information and develop conclusions. Caution always has to be taken in the process of analyzing data. Key questions are important when looking at data for the purpose of drawing conclusions from them. From the analysis, one can represent that data in any or all of the following formats:

• Frequency tables.
• Modes, mean and standard deviation.
• Graphs:  bar charts and pie charts.

10.3 INTERPRETING DATA

Under interpretation one seeks a response to how and why! At this stage the researcher is looking for interconnection in order to arrive at conclusions reflective of the initial biases he presented as hypotheses.

    

 SUMMARY

In this lecture we have learnt that data analysis is the process of looking at and summarizing data with the intent to extract useful information and develop conclusions. Perhaps to many young researchers this might be the toughest part of the research process. I hope that it will never be a problem to you if you have studied systematically this lecture in particular and the other course material in general.

EXERCISE

Discuss at least three barriers to data analysis and interpretation.

FURTHER READINGS

Mugenda, O. M.  & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research Methods. Nairobi: Acts Press. Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press.

LECTURE ELEVEN

WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

INTRODUCTION

In previous lectures we have learnt logically on how to develop research tools, to develop a research proposal, to collect data, analyze and interpret the same. However, all these will not be useful unless the information is made known to people in a meaningful form. Now this leads us to discuss on how to write a report in this lecture. A well written research report comprises a number of distinct sections. Each section is then briefly described in this lecture.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: Evaluate the purpose of writing a research report. Discuss various components of a research report. Explain characteristics of a good research report. Write a research report.

SUBTOPICS

1. Definition of research report.
2. Purpose of writing a research report.
3. Steps in writing a report.
4. Characteristics of a good research report.
5. Format/component of research report.

11.1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH REPORT

Once the data is analyzed and organized it needs to be disseminated to people.  Research report is therefore an organized feedback. You will of course realize that there is not much difference between a final report and a proposal. A research report follows much the same format as a proposal but with two main differences:

(i)                 The research report states what was done rather than what will be done.

(ii)              Research report includes the actual results of the study, along with findings and discussion.

11.2 PURPOSE OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

As a university student you may be required to write a variety of reports for assessment purposes. A research report is one type that is often used in education and other social science fields. Here your aim is to write clearly and concisely about your research topic so that the reader can easily understand the purpose and results of your research. It will be wastage of time, resources, energy and brain if after research has been done nothing is put into a report form. It means the research remains incomplete till the report is written. The main purpose of report writing includes:

(i)                 Communication. We communicate ideas and opinions to stakeholders and society in general relating to what has been done.

(ii)              Information. We are informing our readers of what we did and what we found out. This will enable the readers make enough and reasonable judgments.

(iii)            Research results enter into general store of knowledge.

(iv)            For assessment purpose. To make supervisors assess our quality of research and provide a grade.

11.3 STEPS IN WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

Research report is the product of slow, systematic and painstaking activity. The usual steps of writing a report involve:

(i)                 Logical analysis of the subject matter including mental connections and associations between one thing and the other. It is written from simple to most complex structures in chronological order.

(ii)              Preparation of the final outline, remembering the points to be stressed in the report. An outline is just a framework upon which a report is based

(iii)            Preparation of the rough draft. Here the researcher sits down to write what he/she has done

(iv)            Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft. Careful do revision of the rough work, checking the weaknesses including grammar mistakes, spelling and language usage.

(v)               Preparation of the final references.

(vi)            Writing the final draft.

11.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH REPORT

A good research report should:

·         Not be too long or too short. It should contain enough or adequate information to cover the subject.

• Avoid the use of jargons and abstract terminologies.
• Be free from grammatical mistakes.
• Show originality and attempts to solve intellectual problems.
• Be attractive in appearance, neat and clean.

11.5 FORMAT/COMPONENT OF A RESEARCH REPORT

Research reports differ widely in scope and use but there is somehow a conventional style.

Preliminaries

Preliminaries in a research report include:

Title

It is important that the title be both brief and descriptive of your research. Thus, the title should not contain jargon or vernacular. Rather, the title should be short (generally 15 words or less) and clearly indicate what the study is about.

Abstract

The abstract serves two major purposes. It stimulates readers to read the research work, and it provides the reader with a framework for understanding the research if they decide to read it. Thus, your abstract should describe the most important aspects of the study. An appropriate abstract for your research, should include a statement of the problem, the people you studied, the dependent and independent variables, the instruments, the design, major findings, and conclusions. If pressed for space, concentrate on the problem and, especially, your findings.

Acknowledgement

This is to express gratitude to those who have assisted you in one way or another.

Table of contents

This shows topics and subtopics.

List of figures

This show diagrams, maps, graphs, mathematical and numerical information about age, sex, marks and scores.

Definition of terms and concepts used in the study.

Chapter One: Introduction

This provides the foundation for the understanding of the problem. It has the following sections:

(i) Background of the study

This provides essential information from broad to specific about the problem.

(ii) Statement of the Problem

It spells out in a clear and very specific terms what the researcher was investigating.

(iii) Objectives of the Study

Speaks about the purpose of doing the study. It states the general goal and aims of the study as well as specific objectives.

(iv) The Scope of the Study

It indicates boundaries of the study in terms of location, content and geographical areas.

(v) The Hypothesis and Research Questions

It indicates the hypothesis you tested or the research questions you answered. If your research was qualitatively designed you use research questions. Hypothesis is used when your research design was based on quantitative approach.

(vi) Significance of the Study

It spells out why the study was conducted and the benefits of the study.

(vii) Limitation of the study

Problems encountered obstacles and what cannot be controlled.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Provides general review of literature or content conducted directly or indirectly but related to the study.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

This section states how the study was conducted and how data was analyzed.

(i) Research Design

Spells out nature and type of the study and the reasons for adopting the design.

(ii) Population and Sample

It involves selection, location, sampling procedures, and sampling techniques, size of the sample, sample characteristics and reasons for selection.

(iii) Instruments

You should discuss research tools used to collect the data i.e questionnaires, interview, standardized or unstructured including reliability and validity of using such tools.

(iv) Procedures of Data Collection

Discusses the actual steps taken to collect data, types, who collected, problems and other points of view.

(v) Data Analysis

This section states how the researcher treated the data, and statistical techniques that were used.

Chapter Four: Data interpretation and Discussion of Findings

This is a very important part not found in the proposal. It is the largest section of the report. It should be well organized and presented. Findings describe each of the research questions or hypothesis. Simple tables and figures are also relevant. Usually the percentages of responses to the questions asked are given.

The discussion section of a report presents the author’s interpretation of what the results imply. He/she explains why the findings are in that manner.

Chapter Five: Summary, conclusions and recommendations

This is the final section of the report. It is a good practice to finish the report with a short summary and conclusions highlighting the main points of the study. Conclusions should be related to research questions or hypothesis and forecast future studies. Recommendation part is a brief statement of a limited number of suggestions, advice or general comments.

References

There should be a one-to-one match between the references cited in the report and the references listed in the reference section.

Appendices

Appendices contains all technical data such as charts, newspapers clippings, copy of questionnaires, sample information and other supporting documents like letters of permission.

SUMMARY

In this lecture we have discussed that writing a research report is an essential part of the research process. We also noted that writing research report is not just like writing an essay. A report must be scientific, logical and systematic. It must show creativity, clarity and be concise.

EXERCISE

Discuss the various components of a research report, giving hypothetical examples. What role does an abstract play in a research report?

FURTHER READINGS

Mugenda, O. M.  & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research Methods. Nairobi: Acts Press, Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press Shumbusho, G. N. (2003). Research Report Writing Skills. Mzumbe: Mzumbe Book Project. Kothari, C. R. (2003). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: Prakahan.

LECTURE TWELVE

LOGISTICAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

In any research undertaken, there are important logistical and ethical issues to be considered. These are issues that the researcher and all people who are involved in research must be aware of before starting the research, during research and after research.

In case of logistical issues such awareness and subsequent preparations will save cost, time and energy for the researcher and will also ensure a high quality research. In the case of ethical issues, awareness will protect the integrity of the researcher and also ensure honest results. This section briefly summarizes logical and ethical issues relevant to research. It is intended to provide a context for discussion of procedures for safeguarding research participants’ interests.

 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: Define what logistical and ethical issues are. Discuss logistical issues related to research. Identify Ethical issues related to research.

SUBTOPICS

1. Logistical and ethical issues in educational research.
2. Logistical issues related to research.
3. Ethical issues related to research.

12.1 LOGISTICAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between researchers and the people they study. Professional ethics deals with additional issues such as collaborative relationships among researchers, mentoring relationships, intellectual property, fabrication of data, and plagiarism, among others. While we do not explicitly discuss professional ethics here, they are obviously as important for research as for any other endeavor.

ACTIVITY

Before administering your questionnaire consider any ethical issues that may arise.  For example, does it contain very sensitive material which may leave the respondent upset? How will you deal with subjects who do not respond as further contact may be seen as pestering people who do not wish to respond?

12.2 LOGISTICAL ISSUES

Logistical issues refers to all those processes, activities or actions that a researcher must address or carry out to ensure research activities are conducted out peacefully and systematically. The main items to consider in logistics include obtaining research permit, establishing a work plan or research protocols and pre-testing instruments.

Clearance from the supervisor

Completion of a research proposal and clearance from the supervisor is among one of the very important logistic. If the supervisor is not satisfied with the research proposal he/she cannot allow you to proceed with data collection.

Obtaining a research permit

As soon as the research proposal is ready it is necessary for a researcher to obtain permission from authorities from the university or institution to conduct research from the university. Most universities in Tanzania have research department that offers research permit and clearance in writing.

Pre-testing of instruments

The purpose of pre-testing the instruments is to ensure that the instruments are stated clearly and that they will produce the same result. However, pre testing is not mandatory to every researcher particularly where a researcher is using a standardized instrument.

Fieldwork logistics

In reaching research site, the researcher does not start collecting data haphazardly! He/she should contact the local authorities such as village officers or district administrative officer etc for reporting and notification.

12.3 ETHICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANCE

The history and development of research ethics and guidance is strongly reflective of abuses and mistakes made in the course of research. This has led some educational researchers to conclude that their research is unlikely to benefit from such guidance or even that they are not at risk of perpetrating abuses or making mistakes of real consequence for the people they study.

Between these two extremes lies a balanced approach founded on established principles for ethical research guidelines that are appropriately interpreted for and applied to the qualitative research context. Agreed-upon standards for research ethics help ensure that as researchers we explicitly consider the needs and concerns of the people we study, that appropriate oversight for the conduct of research takes place, and that a basis for trust is established between researchers and study participants.

Whenever we conduct research on people, the well-being of research participants must be our top priority. The research question is always of secondary importance. This means that if a choice must be made between doing harm to a participant and doing harm to the research, it is the research that is sacrificed. Fortunately, choices of that magnitude rarely need to be made in educational research. But the principle must not be dismissed as irrelevant, or we can find ourselves making decisions that eventually bring us to the point where our work threatens to disrupt the lives of the people we are researching.

12.4 WHAT ARE THE FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH ETHICS PRINCIPLES?

Three core principles or basis for research ethics includes the following:

Respect for persons

This requires a commitment to ensuring the autonomy of research participants, and, where autonomy may be diminished, to protect people from exploitation of their vulnerability. The dignity of all research participants must be respected. Adherence to this principle ensures that people will not be used simply as a means to achieve research objectives.

Beneficence

This requires a commitment to minimize the risks associated with research, including psychological and social risks, and maximizing the benefits that accrue to research participants. Researchers must articulate specific ways this will be achieved.

Justice

This requires a commitment to ensuring a fair distribution of the risks and benefits resulting from research. Those who take on the burdens of research participation should share in the benefits of the knowledge gained. To put it in another way, the people who are expected to benefit from the knowledge should be the ones who are asked to participate.

In addition to these established principles, some researchers have suggested that a fourth principle, respect for communities, should be added. Respect for communities “confers on the researcher an obligation to respect the values and interests of the community in research and wherever possible, to protect the community from harm.” We believe that this principle is in fact, fundamental for research when community-wide knowledge, values, and relationships are critical to research success and may in turn be affected by the research process or its outcomes.

Apart from the fundamental principles the researcher need to acquire the participants’ informed consent; and maintain confidentiality of the research process.

Informed consent is a mechanism for ensuring that people understand what it means to participate in a particular research study so they can decide in a conscious, deliberate way whether they want to participate. Informed consent is one of the most important tools for ensuring respect for persons during research.

Many people think of informed consent primarily as a form, that is, a piece of paper that describes in detail what the research is about, including the risks and benefits. This form generally goes through ethics committee approval procedures, includes legalistic language. It is signed by the participant, the researcher, and possibly a witness. Such informed consent forms are appropriate for other research – including qualitative – when the risks faced by participants may be substantial. They may also be necessary for minimal risk research when the foundation for trust between researchers and participants is weak.

But forms are really only one part of an informed consent process. In some cases, forms may not be the best way to ensure informed consent. There are also situations where obtaining informed consent from individual participants may not be feasible or necessary. For example, a researcher using participant observation to learn about how pupils self study outside classrooms, would find it very hard to get everyone observed in that setting to sign a consent form and would probably create unwarranted suspicion about her motives in the process of seeking such consent. Yet if people see a stranger hanging around, watching, asking questions, and perhaps taking discreet notes, they may be even more suspicious about why she is there. In these situations, educational researchers must use other mechanisms to achieve the goal of informed consent.

Individual informed consent may be written or oral.

• Written consent means that a person receives a written form that describes the research and then signs that form to document his or her consent to participate. For illiterate participants, the form is read to them, they make some kind of mark in place of a signature, and then a witness usually signs as testimony that the consent is authentic. Written informed consent may also be described as documented informed consent.

• Oral consent means that a person receives all of the information needed for consent either verbally or in writing and then verbally consents to participate. The participant does not sign a consent form. This is often described as waiving the requirement for documentation of informed consent. This does not mean that the requirement for informed consent is waived.

Confidentiality

Because educational research is mostly conversational, it is important for data collectors to maintain clear boundaries between what they are told by participants and what they tell to participants. Conversation is a social act that requires give and take. As qualitative researchers we “take” a lot of information from participants and therefore can feel a strong need to “give” similar information in return. People also enjoy talking about what they hear and learn – and researchers are no different. It may be tempting to pass along seemingly inconsequential information from one participant to another – for example, people can become upset and untrusting about trivial comments being shared, especially if they are very personal information.

In some situations we require unique strategies for protecting confidentiality. The ways in which confidentiality might be breached should be carefully considered before data collection begins and explicit strategies be put in place for protection.

SUMMARY

In this lecture we have discussed: Logistical issues related to research. This is very necessary considering that research needs careful planning of activities to ensure successful completion of research project. Ethical issues related to research as a process, to researcher as an individual and ethical issues related to respondents.

EXERCISE

You have been sponsored by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training to undertake research on pupils with HIV cases. (a)   Discuss five logistical issues you would consider. (b)   Discuss five ethical considerations that you would bear in mind.

FURTHER READINGS

Mugenda, O. M.  & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research Methods. Nairobi: Acts Press Bernard, H. R. (1995). Research Methods in Anthropology. Second Edition. London: Sage Publications.

LECTURE THIRTEEN

WRITING REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

This lecture is an introduction to writing references and covers the most common types of information material in both print and electronic forms such as books, chapters in books, internet resources, conferences and their papers, official publications, dissertations and theses, journal articles, printed music, letters and e-mails, lecture notes, sound recordings, videos (and DVDs), images, pictures and illustrations and maps. Library and Learning Resources have endeavored to ensure the information provided in the research is accurate but take no responsibility for any inaccuracies.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: Define what a reference is. Discuss the importance of referencing in research. Use APA style.

SUBTOPICS

1. References.
2. Importance of referencing.
3. Using American Psychological Association (APA) referencing system.

13.1 REFERENCES

Reference is derived from the basic meaning of the original Latin word or term as "a point, place or source of origin" that is something of comparable nature can be defined in terms of origin. A referee is the provider of this source of origin, and a referent is the possessor of the source of origin, whether it is knowledge, matter or energy. Because of its meaning, the word reference is used in every sphere of human knowledge, adopting shades of meaning particular to the contexts in which it is used.

With scholars and academics, author-title-date information in bibliographies and footnotes, specifying complete works of other people. Copying of material by another author without proper citation or without required permissions is plagiarism. Modern academic study of reference has been developing since the 19th Century.

In academics, a reference may be a citation of a text that has been used in the creation of a piece of work such as an essay or report. Its primary purpose is to allow people who read such work to examine the author's sources, either for validity or to learn more about the subject or topic. Such items are often listed at the end of an article, book or research report in a section marked Bibliography or References. A bibliography often contains works not cited by the author, but used as background reading or listed as potentially useful to the reader. A reference section contains all of the works and only those works cited by the author(s) in the main text.

13.2 IMPORTANCE OF REFERENCING

In the academic tradition, of which research is an important branch, referencing is of utmost importance. Academic writing assumes that you have read widely and that you acknowledge the writings and ideas of other people by using a referencing system. What this means for you is that whenever you write an assignment that is based on information from other sources, you are expected to give references of these resources in your writing. This is the case for research works that all sources including books, journal or newspaper articles, and items from the internet, pictures or diagrams should be referred to. The referencing in your research proposal or report shows six things:

(i)                 Referencing is a means of communication and sharing of information. Through referencing, one avails to other members of the academic community and general stakeholders, aspects of knowledge on an area of interest.

(ii)              You have read extensively when undertaking the research. It shows the range of reading that you have done. The references gains you credit for your research work.

(iii)            The range of ideas and approaches to a topic that you have found and thought about.

(iv)            Your acknowledgement of where these ideas came from. You may support your arguments with the opinion of acknowledged experts and use data from reputable sources. This can make your own arguments more convincing.

(v)               It is a basic academic requirement to show details of the sources of your information, ideas and arguments. The purpose of the details provided is to make it easy for someone else to follow up and trace the materials which you have used. Doing so means that you cannot be accused of plagiarism, i.e. stealing from another person’s work. Referencing is one skill that helps all writers avoid unintentional plagiarism^.

(vi)            Referencing facilitates handy retrieval of information for use at another time. Because of this importance, referencing must be handled in a manner that members in the academic circles and other stakeholders can easily recognize and apply.

2.1 There are three main rules of referencing.

(i)                 A reference must be included every time you use someone else’s ideas or information.

(ii)              A reference must be included when you:

·         paraphrase (express someone else’s idea in your own words)

·         summarise (express someone else’s idea in a reduced form in your own words)

·         quote (express someone else’s idea in their exact words) or

·         Copy (reproduce a diagram, graph or table from someone else’s work).

           (iii) Each reference must appear in two places:

• Shown in the text of your assignment each time it is used (the in-text reference)
  AND
• Listed once in the reference list at the end of the assignment. This listing has full details so that your reader can identify the source.

12.3 USING APA REFERENCING SYSTEM

There are many referencing style used in academics. The most common ones are American Psychological Association style (APA) and Harvard Referencing System (HRS) just to mention few. An important consideration in any of the options which one chooses is that it serves the functions above and it is consistent.

APA format is the official style used by the American Psychological Association (APA) and is commonly used to cite sources in psychology, education and social sciences. The American Psychological Association (APA) is the largest professional and scientific organization of psychologists in the United States. The basic guidelines for APA format were laid out in a 1929 article published in Psychological Bulletin. These guidelines were eventually expanded into the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. APA format may seem difficult, but it will become easier once you familiarize yourself with the rules and format.

One of the biggest reasons to create an APA format bibliography is simply to make the research and writing process easier. If you don’t have a comprehensive list of all your references, you might find yourself scrambling to figure out where you found certain bits of information that you included in your paper.

12.3.1 Reference Page in APA Format

An APA format bibliography is an alphabetical listing of all sources that might be used to write a paper, essay, and article or research paper.

• Your references should begin on a new page. Title the new page "References" and center the title text at the top of the page.

• All entries should be in alphabetical order.

• The first line of a reference should be flush with the left margin. Each additional line should be indented (usually accomplished by using the TAB key.)

• While earlier versions of APA format required only one space after each sentence, the new sixth-edition of the APA style manual now recommends two spaces.

• The reference section should be double-spaced.

• All sources cited should appear both in-text and on the reference page. Any reference that appears in the text of your report or article must be cited on the references page, and any item appearing on your reference page must be also included somewhere in the body of your text.

• Titles of books, journals, magazines, and newspapers should appear in italics.

12.3.2 Format Examples

3.2.1 Books

Format:
when writing references involving a source from a book the format is as follows:

Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title. Additional information. City of publication: publishing Company.

Examples:

Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.

Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of the imagination. New York: Random House.

Nicol, A. M., & Pexman, P. M. (1999). Presenting your findings: A practical guide for creating tables. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Searles, B., & Last, M. (1979). A reader's guide to science fiction. New York: Facts on File, Inc.

12.3.2.2 Edited Book with One or More Authors

Edited books with one or more authors should follow the basic structure of a book reference and include the initials, last name, and 'Ed.' in parentheses after the book title.

For example:

Adler, A. (1956). The individual psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic presentation of selections from his writings. (H. L. Ansbacher & R. R. Ansbacher, Eds.). New York: Basic Books.

12.3.2.3 Article Featured in an Edited Book

Articles by individual authors that appear in edited books should list the last name and first initial of the author, followed by the publication date and book title. Next, the editors should be noted followed by the location and publisher.

For example:

Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2005) History of Forensic Psychology. In I. B. Weiner & A. K. Hess (Eds.), The Handbook of Forensic Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Pp.1-27.

12.3.2.4 Translated Books:

Books translated from another language should include the last name and first initial of the author, followed by the year of publication and book title. The first initials and last name of the translator and the notation 'Trans.' should then be included in parentheses. Next provide the location, publisher and a note of the original date of publication.

For example:

Freud, S. (1914). The psychopathology of everyday life. (A. A. Brill, Trans.). London: T. Fisher Unwin. (Original work published 1901).

12.3.2.5 Encyclopedia and Dictionary

Format:
Author's last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article. Title of Encyclopedia (Volume, pages). City of publication: Publishing company.

Examples:
Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
Pettingill, O. S., Jr. (1980). Falcon and Falconry. World book encyclopedia. (pp. 150-155). Chicago: World Book.
Tobias, R. (1991). Thurber, James. Encyclopedia Americana. (p. 600). New York: Scholastic Library Publishing.

12.3.2.6 Magazine and Newspaper Articles

Format:
Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article title. Periodical title, volume number (issue number if available), inclusive pages.

Note:

Do not enclose the title in quotation marks. Put a period after the title. If a periodical includes a volume number, italicize it and then give the page range (in regular type) without "pp." If the periodical does not use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use p. or pp. for page numbers.

Note: Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style.

Examples:
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
Kalette, D. (1986, July 21). California town counts town to big quake. USA Today.
Kanfer, S. (1986, July 21). Heard any good books lately? Time, 113, 71-72.
Trillin, C. (1993, February 15). Culture shopping. New Yorker, pp. 48-51.

12.3.2.7  Electronic resources

Format:
Online periodical:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number, retrieved month day, year, from full URL

Online document:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL

 NOTE

When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is undated, use "n.d." (For no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that goes to another line after a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online documents. There is no period following a URL.

If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.
Examples:
Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved January 23, 2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html
Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998, from Alderman Library, University of Virginia website: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html

Note: If a document is contained within a large and complex website (such as that for a university or a government agency), identify the host organization and the relevant program or department before giving the URL for the document itself. Precede the URL with a colon.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html

SUMMARY

In this lecture we have discussed a number of important issues that includes what is a reference, writing references in APA style and other rules. To summarize the lecture, here are some general rules that remind you to write proper references: Gather Your Sources. Compile all of the sources that you might possibly use in your paper. While you may end up not using all of these sources in your paper, having a complete list will make it easier later on when you prepare your reference section. Keep it accurate. This means that the marker/tutor does not waste time if they wish to consult the items you have listed. If your list is full of errors you will lose marks. Provide all the relevant details. This makes it is easy for the marker/reader to identify the items which you have listed. Again, if some of the important information is missing you will lose marks. Use a consistent format for your references. This will ensure that it is easy to locate a reference within your reading list.

EXERCISE

Why is APA format being preferred style of referencing than many other formats you know?

FURTHER READING

Ebest S., Alred G., & Oliu W. (2003). Writing from A to Z. New York; Press Trade Association.

REFERENCES

Bouma, G. D. (1996). The Research Process (93^rd ed.).  Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (2000). Research Methods in Education (5^th Ed).London: Routledge Falmer.

Denzin, N. & Lincolin, Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage

Ebest S., Alred G., & Oliu, W. (2003). Writing from A to Z. New York; Press Trade Association.

Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational Research, Statistics and Measurement. Kampala: Makerere University Press.

Foddy, W. (1993). Constructing Questions for Interviews and Questionnaires: Theory and Practice in Social Research. London: Cambridge University Press.

Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N. (2000). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Gary, A. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Research. New York: Federal Department Press.

Kothari, C. R. (2003). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: Prakashan.

Mertans, M. D. & McLaughlin, A. J. (1995). Research Methods in Special Education. London: Sage Publication.

  

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury Park: Sage.

Psychological Bulletin (Vol 18 (9), September, 1929). American Psychological Association (APA)

Roberts, K. (1985). Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Quotes and Sayings. Hamburg: Christian Wegner Verlag.

Shaughnessy,  J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2002). Research Methods in Psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Shumbusho, G. N. (2003). Research Report Writing Skills. Mzumbe: Mzumbe Book Project.