Wednesday, 11 December 2013

OEF 101 : PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING----- THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA..

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

OEF 101: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING

STUDY MATERIAL

Course Description

This course examines issues related to philosophy of education and teaching. Issues explored in this course include The Nature of Philosophy, Philosophical Foundations of Education, Branches of Philosophy, Theories of Knowledge, Education and Human Development, Metaphysics and the Pursuit of Knowledge, Ethical Theories, Isms in Education, Great African Educational Philosophers, Logic, The meaning of Philosophy of Teaching, Teaching and its entanglements, Specific Meanings of Teaching, Teaching and knowledge, The Process of knowledge, Types of knowledge, Knowledge skills and their applications, Social Education and Social Ethics, Substantialist and functionalist Approaches, Interactionist and Existentialist Approaches.

In this respect the course closely examines the specific characteristics of knowledge and its foundations.

Course Objectives

The course aims at making students to:

Gain an understanding of Philosophy in relation to educational issues;
Adapt applicable and effective theories of education and teaching from that design a proper way of imparting knowledge to the students;
Appreciate and analyze philosophy of education and teaching as a foundation of knowledge;
Enable the student to interpret and practice Philosophy of Education through teaching

Intended Learning Outcomes

After completing this course teacher candidates should be able to:

Generate new knowledge;
Identify and relate events with the development of specific educational theories and philosophies;
Use appropriate concepts to debate and discuss the importance of philosophy of education and teaching in human development;
Interpret philosophy of education and philosophies ;
Be able to use a variety of knowledge in different educational venues;
Be able to help their communities develop critical thinking;
Provide stakeholders in education with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of issues dealing with education.

PART I

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Philosophy of education has picked up its popularity in recent years. In our world today, it is undeniable that in order to learn and understand life and its making, one needs to study philosophy of education. Unlike philosophy which is rather dry and fluid at times, philosophy of education is rather a practical philosophy. It teaches about human conduct and guides one in almost all human affairs.

Philosophy of education is a philosophical examination of educational issues. In this regard it is paramount for each person, who would like to pursue educational issues, to study this very noble subject. Since time immemorial philosophy of education has rested largely on its educative functions. Philosophy of education can be traced from the time of great philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle and at that time philosophy of education was taken as a defense of philosophy.

The subject of philosophy of education can be approached in many different ways. One person may restrict oneself to studying a single philosophy of education, while another person may use a survey of the various philosophies that have been presented, with an eye to discovering their similarities and differences. This means that philosophy of education is trans-disciplinary and it is due to this fact that philosophy undertakes the conceptual and synthetic task necessary to the construction of a trans-disciplinary practical theory. Philosophy engages itself in a rigorous normative inquiry and is concerned with the nature and the structure of different theories. Philosophy has become a worthwhile enterprise largely because it is rested on educative functions.

This topic (Philosophy of Education) is organized into 10 lectures:

Lecture One introduces the learner into the fabric of philosophy. It is important for the student to know the dictates of philosophy and apply them in one’s day to day activities.

Philosophical foundations of education are very important in matters dealing with education. It is for this reason that Lecture Two contains some facts thoughts about education which have been cultivated by different philosophers over time.

Lecture Three deals with Branches philosophy. It is very easy to mix up branches of philosophy with other topics about philosophy. This shows clearly and distinctively the main branches of philosophy.

Theories of knowledge differ from sources of knowledge. Lecture Four shows the main tenets which are used as theories of knowledge

Humanly speaking, education is very important in human development. One cannot develop without having a proper education. It is with this understanding that Lecture Five deals with education and human development.

In life there are things which can be seen and there are things that cannot be seen. This brings us to the paradox of existence. Lecture Six tries to put the pursuit of knowledge vis a vis metaphysics

Ethics and morality differ. Ethics deals with critical morality whereas morality deals with morality as morality. Lecture Seven encompasses theories of ethics which are paramount in educational issues.

In principle there is no one philosophy of education. This is to say that there are various philosophies of education. Lecture Eight introduces the student to the philosophies of education.

Lecture Nine deals with the great African Educational Philosophers. In Africa there are many educational philosophers. However, for the purpose of our study we only choose two of them: Julius Kambarage Nyerere and Dr. Aggrey James.

A proper and Correct reasoning is paramount in educational matters. For one to understand educational issues to the maximum, consistency is important. Lecture Ten introduces the learner to the nature of logic.

LECTURE ONE

THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION

This lecture provides the definitions of philosophy, the method by and through which philosophy operates, its subject matter and the definitions of education. In this lecture one should concentrate on the meaning of terms that are generally applied in dealing with philosophy of education.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to

· Define philosophy, define education, define philosophy of education and get the general understanding of philosophy.

· Read and conceptualize philosophical writings

The definitions of Philosophy

The definition of philosophy is notoriously difficult. Indeed, it is customary to begin articles such as this by saying that the definition is notoriously difficult. Etymologically the word philosophy comes from the ancient two Greek words philaein or philo meaning “love” and -sophia, which means " wisdom." The word philosophia is a combination of two distinct words: philo which means love and sophia which is wisdom.

The word philosophy has many different definitions. In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000) one reads that philosophy is the study of nature and meaning of the universe and of human life. According to Seneca philosophy is the art and law of life and it teaches us what to do in all cases and like good marksmen, to hit the white at any time (Schlick & Vaughn, 1998). Russell (1979) was not left behind as to giving the definition of philosophy. For him philosophy is something between theology and science. He believed that like theology it consists of speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has so far been unascertainable but like science it appeals to human reason rather than to authority whether that of tradition or that of revelation. Generally speaking one could correctly say that philosophy is one’s general outlook of life (Warburton 1999).

The method of Philosophy

Philosophy is characterized by a certain method. First of all it is undeniable that philosophy is a complicated subject. However, this does not mean that philosophy cannot be well grasped by any individual who studies it. It needs seriousness and a critical mind in order to understand it well. This is due to the fact that philosophy is speculative and that it touches all spheres of understanding that the human mind can think of. It is generally agreed that the method of philosophy is enquiry of a systematic nature, guided by the canons of rationality, and that its most distinctive feature is the use of logical argument. In studying philosophy one has to bear in mind that rationality should be the guiding principle. This is to say that philosophy does not mince things and it does concentrate on the good, truth and the beautiful.

Most philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Wittgenstein, just to mention a few) believe that philosophy is not experimental. It does not employ the methods of empirical science, and its questions are not to be answered by observation or experiment, although observation and experiment may prompt those questions. This is to say that philosophy is entirely intellectual. It does not invoke revelation, reference to sacred texts, myth or religious knowledge of any kind to answer its questions. It has a generally critical nature. Philosophers try wherever possible to examine and criticize beliefs that we commonly taken for granted. In philosophy students are taught not to take anything on trust, 'particularly if it seems obvious and undeniable' (Hodges).

The Subject matter of Philosophy

The subject matter of philosophy involves the most fundamental or general questions sometimes called 'the big questions.' Some of the questions that people continue to ask themselves are as the following:

What is the meaning of life?
How did the world begin?
Do I have a soul?
Will it survive my death?
What things really exist?
Could nothing have existed?

Philosophy also has a second order nature. That is, rather than using the concepts we employ in everyday life in thinking about the world, which is first order thinking, philosophy makes those concepts the object of study. It is in this sense that philosophy is thinking about thinking. In studying philosophy we study on how to think properly and use our intelligence in a proper manner. In studying philosophy we see that there has been a number of prominent philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, Nyerere and many others who have shaped the importance of philosophy in human life.

Education defined

Education whether informal, formal, or non-formal has its own importance in human activities and life. Every society in the world has its own way of educating its members. In the Biblical and Rabbinic thought education was defined as the beginning of wisdom. In Genesis 18:19 it is written Keep the way of God by doing what is right and just. In the Book of Psalms 111:10 it is read the beginning of wisdom is the fear of God.

The Prophet Muhammad introduced the madrasa in order to educate the followers of Islam. Now, what is the definition of education? In Blackburn (1996) the word education is defined as “… a process of teaching and learning, especially in schools or colleges, to improve knowledge develop skills and attitude…”

Plato, Aristotle and Socrates upheld that education is of enormous ethical and political importance. To them people are unified and made into a community by means of education. According to Plato (in the Republic) the goal of ethical education is to train or socialize people’s desires, turning them around from the pursuit of what they falsely believe to be happiness to the point of true happiness. In this sense, education frees one from illusion and images of the good and makes one see the good itself. It is in this sense that we consider philosophy of education as a branch of philosophy which is concerned with virtually every aspect of educational enterprise.

Philosophers vary on the goal of philosophical enquiry. Those who are attracted to the big questions say that the subject matter of philosophy is to discover the absolutely fundamental reason of everything, or to unify and transcend the insights given by science and religion. Others say that, at most, the goal of philosophy is to make explicit, or to clarify, the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs.

ACTIVITY

Visit an internet café and/or a library and search for more information about philosophy as a speculative subject.

SUMMARY

In this lecture we have dealt with the making of philosophy
In this lecture we have seen how philosophy is essentially intellectual
In this lecture we have studied about the proponents of philosophies of education

EXERCISE

Attempt at least TWO of the following questions

Philosophy is entirely intellectual. Discuss.
Illustrate the subject matter of philosophy.
Discuss the nature of philosophy
Elaborate the importance of studying philosophy in human life

DETERMINISM AND FREE WILL

Free will

The question of free will is whether, and in what sense, rational agents exercise control over their actions and decisions. Addressing this question requires understanding the relationship between freedom and cause, and determining whether the laws of nature are causally deterministic. The various philosophical positions taken differ on whether all events are determined or not — determinism versus indeterminism — and also on whether freedom can coexist with determinism or not.

The principle of free will has religious, ethical, and scientific implications. For example, in the religious realm, free will may imply that an omnipotent divinity does not assert its power over individual will and choices. In ethics, it may imply that individuals can be held morally accountable for their actions. In the scientific realm, it may imply that the actions of the body, including the brain and the mind, are not wholly determined by physical causality. The question of free will has been a central issue since the beginning of philosophical thought.

The basic philosophical positions on the problem of free will can be divided in accordance with the answers they provide to two questions:

Is determinism true? and
Does free will exist?

Determinism is roughly defined as the view that all current and future events are causally necessitated by past events combined with the laws of nature.

Determinism

Determinism is a broad term with a variety of meanings. Corresponding to each of these different meanings, there arises a different problem of free will. Theological determinism is the thesis that there is a God who determines all that humans will do, either by knowing their actions in advance, via some form of omniscience or by decreeing their actions in advance. Determinists contend that there is only one possible history of the world. The problem of free will, in this context, is the problem of how our actions can be free, if there is a being who has determined them for us ahead of time.

Phenomena and Noumena

Etymology

"Noumenon" is the neuter form of the present passive participle of Greek "νοείν (noein)", which in turn originates from "nous" (roughly, "mind"). Noumenon is linguistically unrelated to "numinous," a term coined by Rudolf Otto and based on the Latin numen (deity). The noumenon (plural: noumena) classically refers to an object of human inquiry, understanding or cognition. It is a posited object or event as it is in itself independent of the senses.

The term is generally used in contrast with, or in relation to, "phenomenon" (plural: phenomena), which refers to appearances, or objects of the senses. A phenomenon can be an exceptional, unusual, or abnormal thing or event -- but it must be perceptible through the senses; A noumenon cannot be the actual object that emits the phenomenon in question. Noumena are objects or events known only to the imagination - independent of the senses.

It may be further contrasted with the perception and processing of a phenomenon in the human mind.

Wider concepts of phenomenon and noumenon.

Generally, a noumenon may be distinguished from the following concepts, although there is debate of the synonymity between them:

Thing-in-itself, an actual object and its properties independent of any observer.

the Absolute, the totality of things; all that is, whether it has been discovered or not.

For instance, the philosopher Immanuel Kant used the term noumenon synonymously with the phrase thing in itself (German: Ding an sich).

Phenomena and Noumena (Immanuel Kant)

Immanuel Kant's theory of knowledge has been one of the most influential in modern Western philosophy. His basic premise is that we do not experience the world directly but using certain innate cognitive concepts, which might be said to work like spectacles.

For instance, in order to distinguish between different objects we utilise the concept of space, and in order to make sense of cause and effect we utilise the notion of time. Kant believed it was impossible to experience anything in the world, without employing these two concepts (in fact, we cannot even begin to distinguish ourselves from the world and others without them).

Phenomena

Kant makes the distinction between things as we perceive them, and things as they truly are in themselves. He called the former phenomena, and the latter noumena.

On the basis that we perceive things through a variety of cognitive filters, Kant argued that we can only attain knowledge of phenomena (this being things as we perceive them). In fact, he even goes so far as to say that without these cognitive filters, the world would be meaningless to us:

'We cannot define in any real fashion, that is, make the possibility of [an] object understandable, without at once descending to the conditions of sensibility, and so to the form of appearances to which, as their sole objects, they must consequently be limited.' (Critique of Pure Reason: Book II, Chapter III).

This means that knowledge (or what we can know) is limited by our ability to perceive things. For instance, because we require the cognitive concept of time to distinguish between events going on around us (and to make sense of the things we do), this means we cannot attain knowledge of anything which might be said to be outside of time. In fact, so reliant are we on the concept of time that it is impossible for us to conceive of a timeless realm (such as infinity) without using the concept of time. The best we can do is to say that it is a realm where time has no beginning or end (thus using our standard concept of time in a negative sense).

Noumena

The use of innate cognitive categories to help us make sense of the world means that Kant's theory of knowledge is predominantly sense-based. However, this should not be mis-construed to suggest that Kant believed only the sensible (or physical) realm existed. On the contrary, he also believed that behind the realm of appearances (phenomena) there was another realm consisting of things as they truly are, and he called the things in this realm noumena.

Sometimes you find philosophers referring to things in noumenal realm as ding an sich, but his is simply the German phrase for thing in itself (or things as they truly are).

The word noumena is associated with the Greek word for 'mind' (nous). Kant believed the only way we can begin to understand the idea of a noumenal realm, is through the mind (or intellect).

For instance, although people can experience the same object as having a different shape, colour and texture, depending on where they stand in relation to it, this does not change the fact that (logically) the object must have a true form independent to the way they perceive it. For example, if we turn on a red light over a white sheet of paper we perceive the paper as being red, but this does not change the fact that the paper is still white, even though we cannot experience it this way (due to presence of the red light).

In the same way, Kant argued that there must (logically) be a ding an sich beyond our perception of things. Of course, this thing can never be experienced in the noumenal realm due to the fact that we are only capable of attaining knowledge of things as they appear to us as phenomena. However noumena must logically be there, if for no other reason than to make sense of the world we do (and can) perceive around us.

Possible Formulation: Phenomena are things that appear. Phenomena in this sense are objects of sensory awareness or things displaying themselves to the senses. A tentative example, not without its own problems, might be a table. Noumena in this context come then represent objects of reason or, defined negatively, things that never appear. A tentative example may be the set of all real numbers. Plato's Forms (a.k.a. Ideas) would be noumena in this sense because they exist independently of whether or not such things "really" exist. Plato speaks of both the "visible realm" (phenomena) and the "knowable realm" (noumena). For more elaboration see Plato's Republic, Book VII, 517b-c.
ACTIVITY

Visit an internet café and/or a library and search for more information about the writings of Immanuel Kant in relation to his philosophy.

SUMMARY

In this lecture we have dealt with determinism, free will, phenomenon and noumenon

EXERCISE

Attempt at least THREE of the following questions

What is the free will?
How can one understand determinism?
Determinism is a human nature. Discuss.

Suggested Readings

Angeles, P. A., Ed. (1992). The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy. New York, Harper Perennial.

Ayer, A. J. et al. Ed. (1994) A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.

Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996) The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Bunnin, N. et. al., Ed.(1996) The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

Horner, C and Westacott, E. (2000) Thinking Through Philosophy, Cambridge, CUP.

Mwanahewa, S. A (1999) Philosophy of Education, Dept. of Distance Education, Institute of Adult and Continuing Education, Makerere University

Runes, D., ED. (1942). The Dictionary of Philosophy. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.

Warburton, N. (1999) Philosophy The Basics, 3^rd Ed. Routledge, Tailor and Francis group.

http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/logic retrieved on 14^/10/2008

Course Evaluation

Each student has to write a portfolio prior to sitting for the Main Timed Tests and Annual Examinations. This is to say that students will only be allowed to seat for their Main Timed Tests and Annual Examinations upon the submission of their portfolios. The score for the Main Timed Test is 30% and for the Annual Examination is 70%.

PART TWO

PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING

Introduction:

Part two of this course is primarily concerned with Philosophy of teaching. As you might have learnt, Philosophy is regarded as the foundation of human rational activities in various fields. Teaching being one of the rational activities is grounded on Philosophical foundations. Consequently, this unit is expected to equip student teachers with knowledge, competencies and attitudes that relate to four fundamental philosophical questions in turn to the concept of teaching activity. This part covers mainly the conceptual issues about philosophy and teaching, analysis of philosophy parse, philosophy of teaching versus teaching philosophy. Likewise, it covers analysis of philosophy parse in relation to philosophy parse versus philosophies along their impact on teaching. How philosophy is applied in classroom situation is also dealt with. Generally, at the end of part two student teachers will be expected to:

Course Learning Outcomes:

· Gain clear understanding of philosophical concepts underpinning the teaching field;

· Understand difference between philosophy and philosophies;

· Critically recognize the impact of philosophical assumptions on teaching;

· Comprehend difference between personal teaching philosophy versus Philosophy;

· Invent your own teaching philosophy to guide your rational teaching actions through portfolios.

· Understand influence of four fundamental issues of reality, knowledge, values and reasoning on teaching;

· Adapt philosophical theories and principles to enhance effective teaching;

· Appreciate and analyze philosophy of teaching and teaching philosophy as a foundation of teaching profession.

· Raise teaching practitioners’ awareness on how clarity in philosophical underpinnings triggers effective teaching and learning.

LECTURE ELEVEN

CONCEPTUALISING PHILOSOPHY AND TEACHING

Objectives:

Specifically at the end of lecture eleven you will be able to:

Re-conceptualise the term philosophy;
Describe various connotations of the term philosophy;

Describe various meanings of teaching;
Paraphrase in your own words the holistic meaning of teaching;
Relate methods used by philosophers to teaching;
Synthesize meanings of philosophy and teaching into philosophy of teaching.

Philosophy

Hopefully, in section one of this course, you learnt that philosophers vary in the way they conceptualize philosophy parse. The reason is that the moment one defines a term several criticisms on limitations of the definition arise. Consequently, in course of defining the field of philosophy there has never been an agreement on what philosophy fixedly is. This leads us to consider various descriptions of the term, so as to arrive at the holistic meaning. The holistic meaning will be the one that covers all issues on what philosophy is all about.

You also learnt the Etymological sense of the term Philosophy that it originates from two Greek words, “philo” in some versions “philia-philiaen” referring to love of something, and “sophia” in some versions “sophos” meaning wisdom or good judgment. Therefore, it may mean “study of love of wisdom or good judgment”. Critically, this description is limited because it leaves one unsatisfied hence to raise issue on whether philosophy covers love of wisdom and that is all! This calls for consideration of other descriptions.

Philosophy Generally and Technically

Generally, philosophy is a field about general and specific fundamental questions on the reality, knowledge, values and arguments. In strict sense philosophy refers to a rational activity that a normal human being does in his/her day to day activities. A normal person means one who is free from mental illness. Just as Njoroge and Benaars (1994) imply, such a person is regarded as a “general philosopher”. S/he is general philosopher because of being capable of raising simple questions as where, when, how, who, with who? These questions lead to “general philosophy” because every rational and normal person can raise and answer them without much rigorous thinking. In fact such common questions belong to lower levels of educational field. The claims and assumptions given to non- fundamental questions normally are not given rigorously, but are taken for granted.

Technically, there are other questions that require deep and rigorous answers. Such questions include what, how and why? These questions belong to higher levels of knowledge. No claims on these questions are taken for granted instead they call attention for seriousness. Once such questions are raised, “technical” language in answering such questions is required. First to clarify by defining key terms, proceed with interpretation, sometimes demonstrate, analyze, synthesize and even to critically provide rigor. These questions rise from various fields of life like philosophy and education. In philosophy such questions include: what is reality, knowledge, value and correct argument? Why do material world change and nothing remain permanent? How do people attain knowledge? These questions require technical language to satisfactorily answer these questions. These questions lead to philosophy to be regarded as technical hence “technical philosophy” It is technical because it requires technicalities in responding to these questions. Consequently, only a few people are capable of taking time to rigorously respond to these questions. Those who do technical philosophy are called rational critical thinkers capable of speculating, describing, prescribing, analysing, criticizing, and reflecting the taken for granted claims. Well this description falls short of not covering some issues that philosophy cover. This calls us to consider other rational descriptions.

Philosophy as a Rational Activity

Philosophy also is seen as a rational activity. Philosophically, a human being has two powers, of reason and will. On one hand, while reasoning concerns with thinking by reflecting on the raised claims based on sufficient reasons and with evidence, it also means to act based on same satisfactory reasons. One will be judged to act rationally if s/he founds her/his claims and acts on satisfactory reasons. Actually the saying of “…think before you do…” aims to encourage rational acts. For instance, a student should learn while knowing reasons why s/he should attend school to study, lest a lot of time will be wasted into irrational acts not related to studies. Likewise, a teacher should teach while having reasons of teaching otherwise time will be wasted to irrational acts not related to teaching. Suffice to say that philosophy is rational activity of thinking and reasoning before claiming something or some one as right or wrong and after considering justified evidence.

On the other hand, the power of will concerns itself with irrational actions of human being. These include feelings that are emotional such as love, joy, wishes and anger. Unless, the feelings that emanate from will are controlled by the power of reason, the human being will get lost to acts that are done without much thinking known as irrational acts. For instance, it is our right to laugh, to be angry, to love. But the question is how often are we justified rationally to show our emotions? Though one has the right to laugh, love, praise, however, it is irrational act to laugh, love, and praise, without justified reasons to do so. We have the right to be angry, but how many times do we become angry with justified reasons is an issue. As such, whatever we intend to do, the two powers of reason and will should collaborate. To will to do something without justified reasons leads us to act in shambles. Consequently, often times we act irrationally, and rarely do we act rationally. These descriptions emphasize rationalists understanding which falls short of other non rationalistic issues. This leads to consideration of more scientific descriptions.

Philosophy as a Systematic and Analytical Science

Strictly speaking, empirical scientists do not regard philosophy as true science. But what is science? The term science from Latin word “scientia” refers to the study of causes and effects. This sense refers to positivist empirical paradigm, where pure scientists count true knowledge after conducting laboratory systematic observation and investigation. For empiricists the definition of true and pure science includes experimental based disciplines such as Chemistry, and Physics to mention a few. Pure scientists rationalize that this is because these fields have systematic methods of founding an organized knowledge. However, broadly speaking, the word systematization is found at the heart of any organized knowledge in any field. Social sciences in fields of Civics, Politics, Biology, History and education, are sciences too. Thus, philosophy is also seen as a social science because philosophers have their own methods of obtaining and systematizing its knowledge. Critically, despite being the pure scientists’ description, this definition covers only one type of source of knowledge obtained from empirical paradigm; but falls short of not including whole issues covered by other social fields like history and philosophy. Pure scientists’ description leads us to consider the controversial issue on whether philosophy should be regarded as science because of its methods.

Synthesized Meaning of Philosophy

Having analysed various descriptions of the term philosophy etymologically, generally, technically, rationally and scientifically, the student teacher is in position to synthesize these descriptions into holistic connotation. It was said that philosophy is all about four fundamental questions on; what is reality? What is knowledge? What is value; and what is rational argument? Therefore, philosophy may be holistically referred to as a systematic social science that aims at searching knowledge generally and technically, about wonder of fundamental issues on reality, knowledge, values, rational versus irrational arguments.

Methods Employed by Philosophers in Systematizing Knowledge

Philosophers systematize knowledge through various methods including: speculation, as when philosophers wonder about the nature of reality. Caught in wonder, they begin to hypothesize and conjecture thinking rationally raising serious questions about their experienced world. Secondly, by analysis philosophers are able to separate general things into specifics. Each separated thing is diagnosed about its essence. As such, analysis as it will be elaborated on functions later, it is at the heart of philosophy. Third method is critical thinking. Philosophers never take claims for granted. Every received claim is subjected to rigor as to discover misnomer. Through critical thinking issues are raised in need of answers. Fourth is descriptive, where philosophers describe nature of things by defining concepts generally. These methods distinguish philosophy to be a social science from other fields. Pure scientists’ description leads us to consider the controversial issue on whether philosophy should be regarded as science. Philosophy as the social science leads us to consider its functions.

Functions of Philosophy

There is a growing belief among intellectuals in higher learning institutions of rationalizing that philosophy is difficult, abstract, Western and hence irrelevant. Such a belief has led wither of teaching philosophies in universities in Africa as Makinde (1987) observes. Commenting to this belief, Agrwaal (2003) contends, “… the belief that educationists may continue to teach without concerning themselves with philosophy means a failure to understand the precise nature of education…” It is added, “…without philosophy, education would be a “blind effort” and without education, philosophy would be “crippled.” This means that the process of education cannot go on the right lines without the help of philosophy. Also, while philosophy is a theory, education is like a “laboratory” where claims of philosophy and philosophies on teaching and learning are tested.” Without education, philosophy lacks the ground to justify its worthiness but again without philosophy education lacks a theory to guide it, because education itself is not a theory. Conclusively, philosophy is a systematic that falls under social science and humanities, whose essence is descriptive, normative and analytic by nature. The three features make the main functions of this field to include:

Analytical Function

To engage in analytical role of philosophy entails analysis of language, concepts, and theories of a certain field. This function seeks to deal away with confusion in the use of concepts. Teachers need to be clear on language of instruction, especially English which seem to lose clear, correct uses among students and teachers. It is all about concepts clarification before using them in the classroom situation. This is why this function relates greatly with the entire process of teaching. To engage in analytic philosophical teaching is to deal with the “analysis” of language, concepts, theories used, and so on. In teaching there are dual confusing concepts on issues, whether aims are the same as goals and objectives? Whether teaching is similar to learning, whether teaching and learning methods are similar to technique and strategies? Others are whether assessing is the same as evaluating? Whether school vision is the same as mission and motto? This is exactly the practice that philosophers regard as “doing philosophy”. The goal of analytical philosophy of teaching is to improve understanding of teaching and learning by clarifying our technical concepts in teaching field. The analytic philosophical teaching would attempt to understand such questions as: What is teaching versus training? What are goals of education versus objectives of a topic? Is knowing the same as understanding? What is experience? Are instructional objectives same as specific objectives? Which methods, strategies and techniques are effective for effective teaching and learning? Suffice to say that a critical method aims at cultivating action such as teaching to be done critically, reflectively and productively.

Descriptive Function

Descriptive function refers to engage illustrating issues comprehensively. It is focusing about issues cognitive dimension of educational field. A student may try to picture the general development of educational field such as history of philosophy of educational thinkers. A student teacher will be counted to engage in descriptive philosophical function once involved in the study of the background history of philosophy of teaching (AECT, 2001). This is when s/he will be studying about the question of “what is?” and “what has been the field of philosophy of teaching?” That is the student teacher is expected to work comprehensively, to picture the general development of philosophies and philosophical thoughts. This is more than studying intellectual history. As AECT puts it that it is possible to study about what philosophers have said about philosophies, and at the same time be doing philosophy where students are “analysing, clarifying concepts, and the language in which ideas are expressed” If this is done then a student teacher will be situating educational issues within a philosophical tradition about educational issues, how they would go about making sense of those issues, establish, to the extent of establishing a world view of metaphysics or ontology. So several questions may be raised descriptively: what is the nature of reality? What is the nature of knowledge? What is of value (metaphysics, epistemology and axiology? These questions provide a conceptual framework that gives coherence to the function of philosophy descriptively.

Normative Function

To engage in normative role of philosophy a teacher or a student will be involved with values that govern teaching and learning. It is focusing about normative dimension of education. It is about the question “what ought to be done” teaching educational field? What is right to be done and promoted and what is wrong to be avoided for effective teaching? This involves considering ethical and aesthetics of activities in any field in particular teaching. Further, this function involves advocating some goals, ends or objectives as values of teaching profession that a teacher believes to be desirable explaining the reasons for their desirability. The teacher may also be involved in suggesting means for advocating these values. Ends are inseparable with means. Normative function equally refers to issues of suggesting best means as methods, strategies, techniques towards achieving educational goals and ends (purposes).

Critical Function

To be critical refers to getting at truth through careful questioning, systematic appraisal without fear of anybody but truth. Being critical is to engage in critical analysis or discussion through rigorous or careful coined questions. It is capacity of an individual to discern truth even when in conflict with traditions or institutions. Critical inquiry is one of the functions of philosophy which, “when properly pursued; it empowers its recipient like teachers to have capacities for self-expression, reflection, debating ideas and dealing with problems for which is not easy to answer”. The focus of critical inquiry is not to honour individual teachers or to terrify them but to get at truth critically. Experience indicates that any statement that is regarded as truth is challengeable. Socrates is the exponent of challenging things sophists used to take for granted, that they know while they were not. Teachers use Socratic Method in classroom for critical inquiry. Philosophy as critical inquiry treats knowledge as tentative at reception until when evidence warrants it. A critical teacher knows that truth is regardless its source. Philosophy encourages teachers to be critical on what they used to believe as truth, what they hear as hearsays instead they have to inquire critically with evidence. Critical thinking helps teachers not to accept whatever things said by their authorities or students, teachers have to inquire critically and judge themselves about what is right and wrong.

Reflection?

Should you always follow administrative policy without questioning? Why?

People do not distinguish critical inquiry from harsh arguments. Enlighten someone with such dilemma.

Socrates is counted as father of critical thinking through his Socratic method. Account for this contention.

Summarily,

Teachers have to study philosophy due to its importance:

Being one of the courses in teachers colleges, philosophy pass on skills that will be valued by any future employers;
It enhances problem solving capacities that help in contributing the ability to organize ideas and to select what is essential from the mass of information;
It helps to distinguish different view points and to discover common grounds among them;
It helps to remove ambiguities and vagueness from one’s speech and enables one to present what is distinctive about the held position; through the use of systematic argumentations;
It facilitates communication and understanding of the difficult materials;
It enhances teacher’s persuasive powers by providing training in clear formulations of good and articulate points also to defend ones position of view;
It strengthens an individual teacher to think analytically, evaluate premises constructively in his/her field.

Specific Descriptions of Teaching

At this juncture it is quite well to inquire, what is teaching? Likewise, teaching concept has a lot of connotations. No single description suffices to clarify what the concept of teaching means because teaching involves complex systematic issues. Consequently, several specific descriptions have to be considered before arriving at holistic meaning of this concept. Various writers have described process of teaching specifically tracing its etymological roots, as transmission of banked knowledge, values and attitudes; as a structure of activities, operationally as action involving an agent, an end in view and an environment. Also, teaching is seen as an art and science.

Teaching as Transmission of Knowledge

Olela and Benaars (1993:11-13) trace teaching from German etymological words ‘taiken’ whose synonym in English language word refers to ‘token’. So while the former refers to act of showing or guiding, the latter means a sign that points to a direction. When the two words are contextualized in the process of teaching, they imply ‘showing or guiding someone to the right direction of realities where the sign directs. The etymological meaning implies teaching as an activity of transmitting knowledge, skills and attitudes from one generation to another. In this sense teachers guide learners to various dimensions cognitively, normatively, creatively and dialogical. Critically speaking the descriptions of teaching as transmission limit the teaching activity where the main function is to indoctrinate knowledge, skills and attitudes. The transmission of knowledge, skills and attitudes is restricted to etymological sense of the word implying rearing or up-brings (educare). The description falls short of perceiving a learner as passive, where one can pour knowledge in open mind. This calls for the need to consider other descriptions towards holistic description of teaching.

Teaching as a Structure of Activities

Mbunda (1997) sees teaching as tasks or functions expected to be performed. Citing Wrag (1984) Mbunda points out 14 teaching activities which cover teaching as activity. These include counseling, administrative and managerial functions as job description of teaching. Others are exercise based teaching, resource based-teaching, execution of curriculum, execution of a syllabus, setting and assessing students’ tests and examinations. This definition focuses much on the structure without exhausting issues of teacher and student centeredness.

Teaching seen Operationally

Secondly, teaching might be explained according to operational terms, that is, a process by which various variables do function. Citing Hyman, Mbunda (1999) elaborates that teaching connotes relationship between methods, teachable objects, and behavior of students. Find out the kind of relationship is pointed out. Likewise, teaching operationally is seen as system of action that involves an agent, an end in view and a context or situation. The later operational connotation raises reflective questions you need to answer as you read: Who is this agent and what should be his role? What is the end in view and to what extent should be its involvement? What kind of environment, and what environmental factors are controllable, and so could be planned or which ones are uncontrollable and are not easy to plan?

What is commonly observed in the two descriptions include; teaching as an element of learning? The behaviour of students or an end in view is part and parcel of teaching process. All we can conclude is that, teaching and learning are interrelated in the sense that effective teaching should not only end with the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, but also with the utilization of what one has learned in solving classroom and day-to-day problems.

The teacher’s role has always been shaped by historical and contemporary forces. In the past, the teacher’s expectations had more concern on moral character. Today, an increasing number of pupils is joining the schools, and many are mushrooming, pupils of different social cultural settings, and of different abilities and expectations. All such situations are now changing and reshaping the teacher’s role, our role (Mbunda, 1997). Suffice to say that Teachers are expected to work in complex educational settings and to prove good educational experiences for all children. As a result we are expected to have advanced preparation and to demonstrate our knowledge of both subject matter and pedagogy. The description is full of operating variables without identifying giving holistic meaning of teaching.

Teaching as an Art and Science

Teaching is both an art and a science. On one hand, art is an act of performing by hands. As an art teaching implies the presence of the teacher who through his/her hands moulds learners. Ishumi and Nyirenda (2003) and Mbunda (1997) put it that every teacher has her/his own styles of delivery. Everyone has a complex set of behaviour and judgments, all of which is based on personal experiences. Consequently, teaching as an art is expected to assist learners to discover. On the other hand, teaching is seen as science. Strictly science implies a systematic study or investigation of studying causes and effects through observation. This description limits science to empirical specializations as Chemistry, or Physics. Normally, the investigation is carried in laboratories. Broadly, science refers to any systematized investigation not necessary to have been conducted through laboratory. Social sciences such as education, psychology, history, and civics belong to this broad meaning because they systematically arrive at their knowledge and claims. In both meanings the word systematization is a common factor in whatever claims are made of science. Teaching fits rightly into broad meaning of the word science. Teachers systematically present their knowledge scientifically, by so doing they are teaching scientifically. Thus, teaching should be regarded as an integrated process of art and science.

Teaching seen as Analytical Activity

As it can be observed from the above descriptions, teaching has been described with a lot of concepts. Consequently, one fails to say exactly what the concept of teaching really refers to. Socrates through his ‘meiotic’ way and later Aristotle the old philosophers wrestled with the meanings of terms that people used, taking them for granted. Sophists or false teachers were the first to be trapped by Socratic inquiry method in which at the end they found themselves empty or ignorant of concepts they took for granted to know. This calls for consideration Aristotle proposal for analytical approach. The holistic meaning of entities and concepts such as ‘teaching’ seems to be well understood holistically, when Aristotelian model of causality is borrowed.

Teaching seen as a Causative Activity

Aristotle in Walsh (1985) elaborates his theoretical framework with ten categories of beings (entities) that beings change, from older forms giving way to newer forms. The sage theorizes that if we wish to delimit any particular entity of its holistic meaning; and if we wish to understand how it has come to be what it is, we must try to discover the “causes”, which have made it to be what it is. As such, Aristotle proposed four main causes namely in the universe: material, formal, efficient and final causes. For Aristotle four causes are constitutive principles of analysing material being governed by change. Causality is at work in things that come to exist in the course of nature (Walsh, 1985). Example, it is by nature and purpose that plants make leaves for the sake of fruits. Likewise, it is for nature and purpose that birds make nests for bearing eggs leading to siblings. What do you think human beings exist or teach for?

Contextually, these causes can help one to define various terms and concepts related to the world we see in case we agree on components that should be involved in the definition. This is because causality analysis suffices to describe holistically any conceptual entities such as “teaching”. Aristotle meant that unless we consider four elements in defining concepts, definition of terms will always present problems. Consequently, study the framework below thereafter you will be required to define various concepts.

Material cause	Formal cause	Efficient cause	Final cause
May refer to question, what is underlying power for change in things?	May refer to the question, which structure/means/essence is the entity or action performed?	May refer to the question, who is an agent of entity action or change?	My refer to questions like: why is the action planned/done? What goal is the action done?

Clarification:

Material Cause:

It is raw material with power (hyle dynamis) within any particular physical being (entity) empowering its primary activity of a being. Being a dynamic power within the physical entity (being) it is able to cause change, which empowers its primary activity of being. In other terms it refers to the power that underlies change in an entity eg. Given learner’s behaviour, what power underlies student’s behavioural change in the classroom situation?

Formal Cause

It refers to an activity of being (energia) which is energetically going on within the particular reality or entity. It further implies the question what is the nature, form of act or entity being performed? Is teaching done concretely and scientifically or in abstract way and harphazadly (unplanned)?

An efficient Cause

It refers to an external or internal agent, factor required to explain the movement or the process of change in which new forms of being are educed from the potentiality (possibility) of matter (dynamic power). It is an agent that initiates a transition from an inner activity of one kind to a new and changed activity of another kind. Simply put it, given a lesson, we ask who causes entity (behaviour) to change in the classroom situation. Who causes the teaching act that leads to learning to happen?

Final Cause:

It refers to goal directed cause of any natural being’s development referring to wherefore, the good or the end of any generation or change. When a thing is produced by nature, the earlier stages in every case lead up to the final development. The operation is directed by a purpose. This cause leads to the question, what is the aim/goal of teaching a certain topic or sub-topic to a learner? In attempt to analyse the deduced definition one needs to precisely study these four causes namely:

Material cause: as an empowering act

Formal cause: as a change of behaviour

Efficient cause: as a teacher

Final cause: as an effective learning

Consequently, from causative frame work analysis one may infer a holistic connotation of teaching as below:

Deduced Analytical Definition:

“…Teaching is a rational empowering activity, where a teacher enables change of behaviour to occur among learners to induce the desired results effective learning…” eg.

Teaching as Facilitation

Teaching seen as a facilitation, Komba (2004:289-298) elaborates it as a process that facilitates learning, where a teacher acts like a catalyst, stimulating learning, it is seen as the type of teaching, where by the main function is to guide students to creative dimension of education. It is supposed to be an activity that appreciates the learner once guided to be able to explore the world through enquiry or asking many questions. In this process the teacher is expected to give the learner a greater scope and sharper tools for exploration. Students as wondering philosophers are expected to ask questions. This is the type of teaching where learners are involved to the maximum.

This description falls short of being one sided by elevating creative dimension while leaving the rest dimensions of cognition, normative and dialogical. Suffice to say that holistic description of teaching should be one that touches not less than four elements. As such, teaching act as the last act of translating educational aims should at least aim to equip students not only with cognitive, normative, creative, but also dialogical skills (Benaars and Njoroge, 1994). This seems to be a multi dimensional holistic description raising controversy because of touching so many aspects of education and teaching in replica with that of Aristotle. Having seen various descriptions of teaching including Aristotle’s proposal, as a teacher it is hoped that now you can develop your own scientific, succinct, and holistic definition of teaching in reference to given models.

? Reflection

Before reading the next paragraphs pause to respond to the raised questions:

1. Do you think this definition fits Aristotle’s proposition, and does it tell us almost all we expect to hear about teaching?

2. Given all these descriptions what type of teaching is effective?

What criteria will you use to judge yourself as an effective teacher?

Summary:

The term philosophy has been described variously in its etymological sense, as general, technical and even as rational activity. Critical approach has been used to critique any given descriptions of philosophy and teaching until when the holistic meaning is arrived at, based on Aristotelian framework. The methods used by philosophers too have been presented. The issue in this section however, is not only to know the roots of the terms philosophy and teaching, the issue is to understand how these connotations are related to the act of teaching moreover, effective teaching. This part has no mandate to choose for you which is the best description. It is upon you to choose the one that fits the situations. To comprehend the relationship between philosophy and teaching it is better to synthesize teaching as specialization of philosophy within education, the task that follows in lecture twelve.

Activity

1. Using Aristotle’s model, define various concepts in teaching field including:

a) Learning

2. Do you think Aristotle’s framework warrants the term teaching to be called holistic description? Why?

3. From the above given descriptions which definitions do you think is a holistic definition of teaching? Why?

4. What is wrong with describing teaching as transmission, imparting knowledge, attitude, and skills?

5. Critically examine ways in which philosophers use to justify their knowledge.

6. People do not distinguish critical inquiry from harsh arguments. Enlighten someone with such dilemma.

7. Socrates is counted as father of critical thinking through his Socratic method. Account for this contention.

References:

Olela,H. and Benaars, G,A. (1993). Philosophy of Teaching. Nairobi: University of Nairobi.

Mbunda, E.L and Counterparts (1992). Classroom Interaction Research Report. Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.

Mbunda, F.L. (1997). A paper Presented at Workshop of Social Sciences Teachers and Tutors. Morogoro.

Enea,M., Gunilla,H. and Mtana,N (Eds) .(2004). Teaching and Learning in Primary Education in Tanzania. Morogoro;MOEC.

Benaars, G.A and Njoroge, R.J. (1994). Philosophy and Education in Africa. Nairobi: TransAfrica.

Makinde, A. (1987). “Teaching Philosophy in Africa” In teaching philosophy, Vol. 10, No. 3, Sept, 1987, pp. 227-238. (Also visit www.Google Scholar).

Agrwaal,J.C. (2003). Teacher and education in a developing society. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.

http://www.apaonline.org/publications/texts/statementonmajor.aspx retrieved 6/3/011

Further Readings:

Visit the following blogs on line sources:

http//en.wikipedia.org.wiki.Aristotelianism

http//en.wikipedia.org.wiki,

www.Google Scholar.

Curren, R. and Curren, R. (2007). Philosophy of Education. Amazon: Wiley Blackwell.

LECTURE TWELVE

SPECIALIZATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING VERSUS TEACHING PHILOSOPHY

Introduction

Lecture eleven introduced you to conceptual issues on the two terms philosophy and teaching. Hint on the methods used by philosophers relating to teaching were given. Teaching descriptions with the Aristotle’s philosophical model of describing concepts were provided. Lecture twelve presents to you the synthesis of the two terms of Philosophy and teaching. It is expected that you will be able to realize specializations within Philosophy itself and specializations when philosophy specializes within education in particular on philosophy of teaching. Deep analysis is made for you to reflect on teaching specialization. It guides a student teacher to distinguish between teaching philosophy from philosophy of teaching. It will be learnt that philosophy as a theory gets its application in teaching as a specialization through documented personal teaching philosophy seen in portfolios.

Lecture two Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lecture be able to:

Synthesize Philosophy and teaching into philosophy of teaching as specialization;
Distinguish philosophy of teaching as specialization from philosophy of teaching as application;
Distinguish the specializations resulting from pure Philosophy in relation to education;
Identify the reasons that point to the importance of studying philosophy of teaching in teacher education;
With illustration differentiate teaching philosophy from philosophy of teaching.

Philosophy of Teaching as a Specialization

Probably in section one you learnt that when a preposition ‘of’ is added to the term philosophy, a phrase becomes “Philosophy of”. This phrase warrants philosophy to be related to every discipline of study as specializations of philosophy within itself, ceasing to be pure philosophy. Yet in every discipline philosophy looks at four fundamental issues of reality, knowledge, values, and logical reasoning. Hence we have: philosophy of History, of Mathematics, of Physics, of Chemistry, of Language and so many others. For this purpose there is philosophy of every field of work or study. From this view, some intellectuals have argued that philosophy is the foundation underlying almost every human learning.

Reflection?

Q. For what rationales do you think philosophy should be regarded as the foundation of all learnings?

This regard leads us to have technical philosophers in specific field. Such technical philosophers are regarded as experts of specific fields (Olela and Benaars, 1993). Thus, any specialization prepares its experts who are well versed with technical language of that specialization. Any expert in the field of teaching is expected to be well grounded on the fundamental metaphysical, epistemological, axiological, and logical assumptions and relate them practically to better the fields process. In the same vain, teachers are experts of teaching specialization within education.

Within education philosophy has so many specializations depending on forms of education namely: informal, formal and non-formal. Consequently, we have specialization of philosophy of indigenous or traditional education. In formal education specializations of philosophy may be at levels of schooling. In this case we have philosophy of pre-primary, of primary school, of secondary school, even philosophy of higher formal learning institutions as philosophy of particular universities. Likewise, philosophy may speacialise on the form of non-formal education systems including Open and distance learning (ODL) even e-learning. Thus, we may have philosophy of ODL and e-Learning. Philosophy within education further may have specializations on teacher education in colleges where they learn how to teach learners.

Philosophy of Teaching versus Teaching Philosophy

Philosophy of teaching implies applying or doing philosophy in the field of education specifically on teaching and learning. The application of assumptions about fundamental questions on what is reality, knowledge, values and correct arguments to rationally solve the problems in the field of teaching, is what correctly is regarded as doing Philosophy through teaching as specialization. At this juncture we can raise technical questions, what are metaphysical and ontological assumptions upon which teaching is founded? What are epistemological assumptions? As it will be seen later, this application leads us to consider what this field specializes at Philosophy of teaching thus specializes on ontological, epistemological, axiological, and logical assumptions related to teaching in its all descriptions to be elaborated in latter lectures. Once we apply philosophical assumptions regarding the four fundamental questions of philosophy to specialization of teaching we are doing philosophy. Application of philosophy of teaching begins with teacher’s personal teaching philosophy as elaborated hereunder.

Practising Philosophy through Teaching

It was said previously that philosophy is seen as a rational activity. The nature of human being is based on reasoning and will. This calls for every normal human being to act rationally. Teaching presupposes the presence of a rational actor, who is a teacher. Teaching refers to scholarly activity, when it is purposeful, reflective, documented and shared in evaluative forum. To be rational the activity of teaching should reflect the very nature of the teacher, who is a rational human being. This can be done through having personal statement of intention or working philosophy leading to reflective teaching.

Teaching philosophy is quite different from philosophy of teaching in many ways. In contrast while a teaching philosophy refers to a statement of teacher’s belief on which s/he founds the act of teaching Farrar (2006) and Noonan, (2011) contend that a teaching philosophy is a very broad personal statement which answers the following rational questions:

i) What do you to teach?

ii) How do you teach?

iii) Why do you teach?

iv) Why do you teach the way you do?

v) What are your teaching goals, objectives and strategies? These questions will be expanded in lecture 15.

The teaching philosophy statement does not describe the content of a course, but rather your goals on what students will learn, and on objectives by which you will help them to achieve those goals. It is a work in progress which changes as you develop experience in the field of teaching.

Contrast is made between philosophy of teaching and teaching philosophy. While the former refers to the specialization of philosophy within education, it is an application of four fundamental questions on reality, knowledge, values and logical reasoning to solve the problems about specialization in motion, so as to enhance the teaching profession. Goodyear and Allachin (2011) maintain that well defined teaching philosophy is essential to creating and maintaining a culture supportive of teaching. It is added that articulating an individual teaching philosophy provides the foundation by which to clarify purposes, and goals, to guide behaviour, to seed scholarly dialogue on teaching and to organize evaluation.

Teaching Philosophy in Practice

It is not yet established in Africa, in particular in East Africa how many teachers teach while having personal philosophy. While it is not yet established anywhere in Africa, we can longer tolerate teachers who teach irrationally without teaching philosophy. However, it is established elsewhere as www.crlt.umich.edu/publinks/CRTL (2011) reports that the teaching philosophy also known as ‘teaching statement’ is becoming a more common part of academic life in faculties and universities. It is argued that educators at all levels find their teaching philosophy helping them to develop as teachers, since it entails making their implicit views on teaching and student learning statements and compare those views to actual teaching practice.

? Think Reflectively

To what extent are teachers in Africa in particular the country of your choice, explicitly alert with importance/functions of developing personal teaching philosophy towards effective teaching?

Q. Critically describe what Philosophy means to you?

Q. What do you understand about teaching?

Q. How do you reconcile the concepts of Philosophy and teaching?

Q. Does the concept of Philosophy in any way relate to teaching as a profession?

The experience shows that for a longer time teachers have been teaching without being explicit with personal teaching philosophy. A few if any might be aware with the importance of centrality of teaching philosophy. The time has come now that Specialization in a certain field calls for experts to be equipped in the knowledge, skills and attitudes of that specialization. It means they have to know deeply how the field goes. In turn, this call for every expert to develop his/her own working philosophy with philosophical assumptions to guide actions in that field specifically teaching.

Importance of Personal Teaching Philosophy

There might be several advantages of the teaching philosophy. But the following are some of them. Teachers apply philosophy implicitly or explicitly, when they write statements of intentions before teaching. Teachers are expected to have their own working philosophy reflecting the knowledge they get from the learnt philosophies. For this purpose, Noonan (2001); Goodyear and Allchin (2011) contend that teaching philosophy is a statement of teacher’s beliefs on which s/he establishes the act of teaching. Articulating an individual teaching philosophy provides the foundation by which to clarify goals, to guide behaviour, and seed scholarly. But why should teachers have their own philosophy before they commence to teach? The working teaching philosophy holds deep pedagogical knowledge, skills, theories about teaching and learning. Thus, it is expected that philosophy of teaching will equip teachers with the required knowledge, skills and attitudes so as to teach rationally in turn causing effective learning.

Dell (2011) insists that teachers must have a well thought-out philosophy of teaching based on what research has revealed as best practices to guide them as practitioners. The philosophy of teaching of the teacher is at the heart of what s/he thinks, feels, and do while teaching. It also encompasses what a teacher wants students to think, feel and do as a result of being in the classrooms. The philosophy of teaching makes the teacher a role model.

How to Develop Personal Teaching Philosophy

Having seen distinctions between teaching philosophy and philosophy of teaching, it is time now to know how to formulate teaching philosophy also known as personal statement. At this juncture, one may raise questions: how does one start to develop own teaching philosophy? What systematic steps to follow in developing teaching philosophy? Study the following case studied provided to you, it is hoped that by aid of them, you will understand how to develop the said philosophy of teaching. The following two case studies may enlighten us more about what the teaching philosophy is all about and how to begin.

Case Studies about the Teaching Philosophy

Case 1:

Noonan (2003) begins saying, “… to me it seems that teaching philosophy seems to be a statement of teacher’s beliefs on which s/he establishes the act of teaching. I believe, “my teaching philosophy is founded on three interdependent principles with three concepts: relationships, environment and feedback. I value positive student-teacher relationship as the most important goal in my teaching. I also believe learning is dependent on positive teacher-students’ relationship. For without such relationship, limited knowledge will be shared, retained or created. Positive relationship refers to how students interact with each other and how they interact. This means how students interact with each other and how students interact with the teacher. I believe teacher’s task is to create an interactive environment that promotes learning.

Secondly, I believe teaching environment should be democratic. This means sharing responsibilities, between students and teachers. While students’ role is to cooperate and learn, the teacher’s is to guide students through successful experiences, plan, organize, likewise execute the lesson scheme and plan, and search for new knowledge in recent journals.

As a teacher I also believe in punctual feedback on given assignment, tests examinations, and term papers. I believe so because the evaluation forms help the teacher to assess how s/he performs in attaining the set goals and objectives. Teaching is the source of learning; I believe students may teach a teacher to be flexible. It gives the challenge and hence a motivation to change. From these believes Noonan established his personal statement of teaching...”

Case 2

Wagner (2011) begins stating, “…as an educator I believe it is important that personal beliefs about education be explored. I find the philosophies of progressivism and reconstructionism within my fundamental beliefs about teaching…” It is added “…my philosophy of education is a student-centred one. I strongly relate to the axiom of serving as “the guide on the side”, rather than serving as the sage on the “arm chair” as is the case in the teacher centred philosophies such as idealism and perrenialism. Further, I believe to connect my own curriculum experience with client’s existing knowledge. It is my experience that people are much more receptive, and information is much more meaningful, within this type of environment. Lastly I see my philosophy as incorporating philosophers of behaviour, which argues that positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviour is appropriate and effective. I further believe that positive reinforcement can be more effective than a focus on negative results for inappropriate behaviour…”

Consequently; I see my personal philosophy of education as being eclectic or of combined approaches. It is my belief that in student centred approach it incorporates ideas found within “progressivism and social reconstructionism” the stance to be discussed in chapter thirteen. I feel my approach to teaching also involves ideas found within theories of constructivism and behaviour modification. Finally, my teaching philosophy has been shaped by experiences within my own life, education, and career in working with people. As I enter the profession of education, my philosophy will evolve as I grow and gain experiences as a teacher in the classroom. However, the foundations of my educational philosophy will continue to guide me in the way which I interact with students and teach within my classroom…”As I enter the profession of education, my philosophy will likely evolve somewhat as I grow and gain experiences as a teacher in the classroom. However, the foundations of my educational philosophy will continue to guide me in the way which I interact with students and teach within my classroom...”

Suffice to say that these two cases may pave the way for you to develop you own reflective philosophy of teaching.

Reflective Teaching

By reflection or “critical reflection” in this section it refers to an activity or process in which an experience is recalled, considered and evaluated in relation to broader purpose. Consequently, through this teachers respond to past experience and become conscious to recall and examine experiences as the basis for evaluation and decision making which in turn become a source of informed planning and action.

The experience indicates that teacher’s routine of teaching tends to hinder professional growth, if teachers do not possess skills on how to reflect on their activity rationally, then they may teach irrationally. But how can teachers move beyond the level of automatic or routinised responses to classroom situations and achieve a higher level of awareness of how they teach how they value and are aware with consequences of particular instructional decisions? The answer is to make them teach reflectively.

Richards (1990) proposes that one way of doing philosophy of teaching as a specialization, is to involve teachers in reflective teaching. How is this done? This is done through observation and reflecting on one’s own teaching, because the observation and reflection are ways of bringing about change. Further, reflection is also known as “critical reflection.” This refers to an activity or process in which an experience is recalled, considered, and evaluated, usually in relation to a broader purpose. It is a response to past experience and it involves conscious recall and examination of the experience as the basis for evaluation and decision-making and a source for planning and action.

On the other hand, Bartlet (1990) points out that becoming a reflective teacher involves moving beyond a primary concern with instructional techniques and how to” questions and asking “what” and “why” questions give us a certain power over our teaching. It may be concluded that the degree of autonomy and responsibility teachers have in their work as professionals is determined by the level of control they can exercise over their actions. In reflecting on the above kind of questions, teachers begin to exercise control and open up the possibility of transforming their every day classrooms life.

Further, statements of teaching philosophy stimulate personal reflection in a process that can yield professional growth and achievement, as schools, departments, faculties examine why their actions inside and outside the classroom match their beliefs about teaching. Reflecting and articulating beliefs through writing is powerful process that takes time and commitment. Once teachers and lecturers might be asked to write these statements to guide their teaching, it may open to serious discussions that lead to common understanding of teaching expectations, as well as innovative teaching. Overall, the process holds the promise of affecting the evaluation and role of teaching on schools, colleges and universities campuses.

Ways of Inducing Reflective Teaching

Many approaches exist if one wishes to become a critically reflective teacher. These include: observation of oneself and others, team teaching, and exploring one’s view of teaching through writing. Central to any approach used however is three part process which involves:

a) Stage 1 the event itself, the starting point is an actual teaching episode, such as a lesson or other instructional event. While the focus of critical reflection is usually the teacher’s own teaching, self reflection can also be stimulated by observation of another person’s teaching.

b) Stage 2 recollection of event, the next stage in reflective examination of an account of what happened without explanation or evaluation. These include written descriptions of an event, a video or an audio recording of an event to capture the details.

c) Stage 3 Review and response to event, following a focus on objective description of event, the participant returns to event and reviews it. The event is now processed at deeper level, and questions are asked about the experience.

So what are approaches to critical reflection which reflect these processes?

· Peer observation, this approach can provide opportunities for teachers to view other’s teaching in order to expose them to different teaching styles and provide opportunities to critical reflection on their own teaching;

· Written accounts of experiences, this approach is useful way of engaging in the reflective process through the use of written accounts of experiences;

· Self-reports, this approach is valuable tool for developing critical reflection like a diary or journal. The goal of journal writing is to give a record of the significant learning experiences that have taken place; provides

· Autobiographies, these consist of small groups of around 12 student teachers who meet for an hour each week for at least couple of weeks. During this period each teacher creates a written account of his/her own educational experience;

· Recording lessons, this approach calls for the need for portfolio as a record which is used as basis for initial assessment to be discussed in chapter fourteen.

Summary

Conclusively, a reflective approach to teaching involves changes in the way teachers usually perceive teaching and their role in the process of teaching. As the above examples indicate teachers who explore their own teaching through critical reflection develop changes in attitudes and awareness they believe can benefit their professional growth as teachers as well as improve the kind of support they provide their students. However, like other forms of self inquiry, reflective teaching is not without risks, since the approaches mentioned above are time consuming. Despite this weakness, yet teachers engaged in reflective analysis of their own teaching have reported that the practice is a valuable tool for self evaluation and professional growth. The reflective teaching is thus a means of professional development which begins in classrooms.

Reflection?

Q. In this lecture you were exposed to philosophy of teaching as combined with Philosophy and teaching. Can you write short notes on specific issues that struck you most in this lecture?

Activity

1. Paraphrase authors notes by synthesizing the relationship between Philosophy and teaching.

2. Argue for or against the contention that teaching is notoriously founded on philosophical assumptions/theories.

References:

Bartlett, L.(1990). Teacher development through reflective teaching. In www.ttjournal.co.uk. Retrieved 21/5/011.

Richards, J.C. (1990). The teacher as self-observer. Inwww.ttjournal.co.uk retrieved 21/5/011.

www.crlt.umich.edu/publinks/CRTL retrieved, 21/5/2011.

Olela and Benaars, 1993

Goodyear, G.E. and Allchin, D. (2011) Statements of teaching philosophy. In www.sunconference.utep.edu/CETaL/resourceteach.html, retrieved May, 2011.

Farrar (2006) and Noonan, (2011) Noonan (2003)

Wagner (2011)

Further Readings

www.crlt.umich.edu/publinks/CRTL retrieved, 21/5/2011.

www.ttjournal.co.uk.

www.ttjournal.co.uk

www.sunconference.utep.edu/CETaL/resourceteach.html,

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

PHILOSOPHERS AND PHILOSOPHIES INFLUENCING TEACHING

Introduction

Lecture twelve presented to you the synthesis of the two terms of Philosophy and teaching that resulted into the specialization namely the “philosophy of teaching”. It was expected that you would be able to realize specializations within Philosophy itself and specializations when philosophy specializes within education as the philosophy of teaching. Deep analysis was made for you to reflect on teaching as a specialization. It guided you to distinguish between teaching philosophy from philosophy of teaching. It was learnt that philosophy as a theory gets its application in teaching as a specialization through reflective action and documented personal teaching philosophy seen in portfolios to be discussed in latter chapters. Lecture thirteen exposes you to some great thinkers’ propositions about four fundamental questions (FQs) in relation to education and teaching. Their attempt to answer four fundamental questions on what is reality, knowledge, values, and correct arguments, leads us to consider their claims as philosophies. The influence of each on teaching will be presented for you to recognize them as you prepare yourself for challenging carrier of teaching.

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

Distinguish philosophy parse from “ a philosophy” (philosophies);
Identify specific philosophies that influence teaching process;
Analyse the claims of any given philosopher, a philosophy, school of thought
Discuss the influence of philosophies claims on teaching, learning, methods, evaluation;
Examine strengths and weaknesses of philosophies when you want to choose one;
Write summary on a philosophy of your interest;
Position yourself on the philosophy of your interest and work according to its values.

Philosophy and Philosophers versus Philosophies

Before providing you with a description of differences try in your own words differentiate between:

a) Philosophy and “a philosophy”;

b) Philosophy and philosopher;

c) A school of thought and philosophies.

Philosophy differs from philosophers and philosophies. The former refers to four raised fundamental problems namely: what is reality, knowledge, values, and correct argument? The four fundamental questions (FQs) lead to four branches of philosophy namely metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic as they were elaborated in lectures one of part one and two. Various answers of philosophers form systems of thought “isms” as you saw them in section one leading to schools of thought to mention a few: idealism, realism, naturalism and others. At this juncture note that “a philosophy” is singular of “philosophies” whereas philosophy refers to philosophical thought as a systematized body of philosophers’ claims about how they view FQs.

Philosophers are great sages who have ever contributed to answer four fundamental questions. Note that there are many intellectuals, whose written views about the four fundamental issues have been” beaten by time” meaning that their views are no longer remembered. Yet, there are other learned men and women whose proposals have survived time no matter how old they are, we have them today. Such men and women include: Thales the founder of formal philosophy as we know it today, Socrates the founder of idealism and critical inquiry, Plato the founder of theory of knowledge, Maria Montessori the founder of pre-school education and Aristotle the founder of realism. You as a student teacher might be wondering and asking, where is the place of philosophers and their philosophies in teaching and learning activity?

The ancient formal philosophers wrestled with the four fundamental questions, which if analogically applied to teaching we may as well ask: what is teaching as a reality? What is supposed to be taught and learnt as knowledge? How do we judge what is good/effective teaching or bad/ineffective teaching? How should teaching be systematized to lead to effective learning of truth? What underlies the act of teaching to be able to induce behavioural change among students? What constitutes a teacher, a student, curriculum content, a method of teaching and learning? How should the teacher and students behave? Should teachers punish irritable students/pupils?

Place of Philosophies in Teaching

Experience indicates that the ideas by society philosophers have profound impact on what actions the society members like teachers perform. The questions that might be raised by teachers, I suppose, might include: how will a teacher recognize what type of “isms” influence her/his teaching behaviour? Or how can the teacher position him/herself amid those “isms”? Is it necessary for a teacher to waste time in knowing “isms”? The answers to these raised questions are no ready made. You will have to write them down as you read the précis of “isms” in the next paragraphs. It may seem a wastage of time, however, having known what philosophers claim about a certain aspect on learning or teaching will assist you to know why you teach certain contents in curriculum over the other, why choose certain methods over the other rationally? To be able to understand the place of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and logic in teaching, a teacher has to acquaint herself/himself with how philosophers have from time immemorial viewed the four fundamental issues. Experience indicates that the way one views such four issues affect his/her speech, and actions. So likewise what teachers will plan their teaching will be influenced by the way they view reality, knowledge, values and truth. Philosophies that have influenced the teaching activity include; traditional, modern, contemporary and polarity or normative philosophies as they are analysed along their influence on teaching below.

Traditional Philosophies (400B.C-1400A.D) in Teaching

Idealism and realism as you might have read in section one of this course are some of “isms” or systems of thinking that were once practiced in ancient Greece in the period captioned in the title, for this purpose they are regarded as ancient or traditional. These philosophies have great implication to the teaching and learning realities and processes as elaborated in the subsequent paragraphs.

a) Idealism Principles in nutshell and Teaching as a Reality

Idealism is described as a philosophy, whose beliefs vary about four fundamental questions to begin with, what is reality. This question belongs to the branch of philosophy namely metaphysics which means beyond physical phenomenon. The underlying theory of idealist in describing reality is on the premise that “what exist as reality are ideas within the human mind.” These are spiritual entities that alone can be understood by human beings. As such, concrete things are just shadows. The universe is essentially non-material in its ultimate nature. For the realists reality is spiritual, abstract or spiritual in nature. Ideas are therefore more important than objects. It means what is real is not the concrete stone, or a house we see, but the concept of the stone that is real. It is not the chair we see that is real but its concept “chair” that is real, perfect and stable. So for the idealists “the stone and the chair concepts” are what are real. A good example given by idealists is architecture. Think of the architecture, who draws the map of the house on the piece of paper which latter the mason builds a house based on it. Idealists ask; where was the concept of the building dwelling before its erection? Surely, it existed in the mind of the architecture. So what is the perfect and real is not the building but the concept of the house, which may be twisted to get different sizes of the buildings such as a hut, a bungalow, or storey. Which building among these is the real house? Obviously, the answer is difficult.

Idealists continue to claim, that human spirit is the most important element in life. Higher knowledge is the product of interactive thinking and reasoning. Consequently, most answers from the idealist student teachers on any raised question or issue will reflect the abstract nature of the underlying theory on the “idea.” Example who is a human being? The idealist would say, “a human being is a spiritual being.” It is also believed that human beings are born with innate capacity to comprehend moral value principles. Who is a student learner? Thus, the central theme of assumptions in idealist’s philosophy is an “idea or spirit.”

Some great thinkers of idealism philosophy in Western world include: Socrates (469-399 B.C), Plato (427-347 B.C), Kant (1724-1804 A.D), Hegel (1770-1831 A.D), and Froebel (1772-1852 A.D). In Eastern world philosophers include Gandhi (1869-1948 A.D), Mao tse Tung (1893-1976); In Africa Nyerere (1922-1999), Kenyatta (1893-1978), and Nkrumah (1909-1972) were idealists. You may ask, how does a teacher become an idealist? It is when a person believes in idealism principles as pointed above and acts in accord to those principles that can be termed as the idealist. A teacher who believes in idealism will always teach without teaching aids or concrete models. S/he will rely on lecture as discussed latter. Likewise, when the solutions that were proposed by a proponents remain un-practical, abstract, and contradictory from the former plans they may be regarded as idealists. Why then should they be counted as idealists? For instance in Tanzania, most of J.K. Nyerere’s social, political, and economic aspects have remained in writings without practicality. Read his proposed ideology of “Ujamaa or African socialism” and his philosophy of “self-reliance” from 1967 -1985, his theories failed in implementation.

Reflection?

Are there things that you proposed/planned and failed to achieve in implementation? Do you think idealism philosophy can be accounted for what happened to your implemented plans?

Place of Idealists’ Metaphysics in Teaching as a Reality

Having known the claims of philosophers let us now see how our reality of teaching relates with those claims. In other words where does a teacher meet metaphysics in his teaching carrier? Metaphysics as you learnt in section one is science about issues of reality. Teachers are surrounded by realities in their teaching profession that cause wonder including: Curriculum content (knowledge), a teacher, a learner, teaching methods, teaching materials, Teaching and Learning (T/L) environment, assessment, evaluation, students’ behaviour and discipline.

b) Realism Principles in Nutshell and Teaching as a Reality

In contrast realism-is described as a philosophy, whose beliefs vary on four fundamental questions. For a realist, reality is viewed as objective “concrete things.” It is the opposition of idealism thesis that ideas are reality, instead realists argue that concrete things are real. It means what is real is the concrete stone, or a house we see not the “idea” which is real. It is the chair we see that is objective and real, not the concept of the chair. Thus, the central theme in all realists is a “reality in terms of concreteness” Great exponents of realism philosophy from Western world include, Aristotle(384-322 B.C), St. Thomas Aquinas, John Locke, from Africa Nelson Mandela, Paul Kagame (1957). But one may ask how does one become a realist? The moment one adheres to principle of objectivity. The moment the solutions that were proposed by a proponent (philosopher) become practical, consistent and scientific to the proposed plans. For instance in Tanzania, Nyerere J.K. in most of his proposed economic, political even social theories can now be regarded as idealism. The reason is because his proposed ideology of “Ujamaa or African socialism” and his philosophy of self-reliance in 1967 failed in implementation since 1980s.

Place of Realists’ Metaphysics in Teaching as Realities

Having known the claims of philosophers let us now see how our reality of teaching relates with those claims. In other words where does a teacher meet metaphysics in his teaching carrier? Teachers are surrounded by realities in their teaching profession that cause wonder including: Curriculum content (knowledge), a teacher, a learner, teaching methods, teaching materials, T/L environment, assessment, evaluation, students’ behaviour, discipline.

c) Modern Philosophies (1500-1900 A.D.) in Teaching

In the history of philosophy the philosophies that dominated the period in brackets particularly in western countries are periodised as modern .Other philosophies on viewing reality include naturalism, positivism. While naturalism is a philosophy, whose beliefs emanate from the “nature,” naturalists view the nature as a whole reality like wise matter as supreme over spirit. The central view is thus nature. Being the oldest philosophy in western world naturalism began with exponents namely: Democritus (400BC), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778 A.D.); Maria Montessori, (1870-1952), and Frederick Froebel (1780-1852). Thus, most answers from the naturalist student or teacher on any raised questions or issues about teaching will reflect the naturalism belief on the “natural things.” On the other hand, Positivism is another philosophy which centres on the beliefs in empirical world as observed by five senses. Its central theme on reality is claims with evidence that are true through experimentation. Reality thus is what is being observed. Francis Bacon (1561-1626 A.D.), August Comte (1700 A.D.) are among the fathers of this philosophy.

d) Contemporary Philosophies and Teaching

In the history of philosophy be informed that contemporary philosophies are those whose use have come to our current time. As such, a philosopher is counted as contemporary if his/her works to solve the problems of the current time. For stance, some Plato’s or Aristotle’s theories, though traditional are counted contemporary because they are used in our time to solve existing problems. Among the current philosophies of our time in influencing the field of teaching include: existentialism, pragmatism, progressivism, essentialism, reconstructionism, constructivism and feminism. On one hand, whereas existentialism is a philosophy, whose beliefs centre on existence, its central theme is that reality is an existing phenomenon that precedes essence (ideas). In simpler terms it requires the teacher to ask reflectively, “what comes first in life between essence (ideas) and existence? Is it the essence or the existence?” Further, existentialist teachers would argue, “we live to eat not eat to live”. Self knowledge (subjectivism or individualistic) is more important than any other thing for the existentialist. The emphasis of the existentialism philosophy is the call to consider the real existing problems of life like death, fate, fortunes, oppression and diseases. Teachers thus, should be aware to link theories they teach in classrooms with existing situations of realities. The exponents of existentialism include; Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) and Karl Jaspers.

On the other hand, pragmatism is a philosophy, whose belief is based on reality about “what works is real.” This seems to imply that what is true is what is useful and in turn what is useful is what is real. Furthermore, this seems to suggest that “usefulness” of what works is the basis of truth. This can be well exemplified on the truth of a statement, that a statement should be judged by the effects it has on our actions. In teaching the usefulness of the method of teaching and learning should be judged by its effectiveness in bringing about quality results. Further, it means that truth should be seen as what the whole of scientific inquiry ultimately agrees on. In other words pragmatism urges teachers to know that “what is practical through scientific investigation has value.” The methods teachers use have been scientifically been tested of their effects when used. As such, teachers should count what works, what produces effects practically as reality. Teachers have to underscore what is theoretical as un-real. Do you agree with pragmatists’ claims? Exponents of pragmatism include: William James and Pierce the founders and John Dewey.

Liberalism and Critical Pedagogy in Teaching

One of educational purpose is said to be liberation or rather emancipation. The liberating education should empower students to come out their cocoons or envelopes to free themselves from shackles of ignorance, poverty, fear, lack of confidence, even diseases. One will be counted as emancipated if education helps to solve the problems an individual faces. These words are reflected in one of the liberal educators in our contemporary time Paul Freire (1921-1997) regarded as a Brazilian father of “Emancipatory critical Pedagogy.” This pedagogy emanates from Freire’s observation of the oppressed farmers in Brazil. The educator sought ways how to liberate them from colonial rote learning which couldn’t emancipate Brazilians from the colonial exploitation, oppression and enslavement. Freire believed that education is “a political act”. The educator urged students and teachers to be aware of politics that surround education. Critical philosophy of Freire opposes teachers, who cultivate the “banking” concept of education in which learners are passive unable to contribute anything. Such teachers treat learners as empty receptacles or vessels to be spoon-fed by teachers. When teaching and learning is regarded so, learners remain as receiving objects. Freire is compared with John Dewey who views education to be a “mechanism for social change and social reconstruction.

Freire too is critical of teachers who teach students the culture of silence. This culture is attacked critically because it prepares graduates for enslavement and oppression instead of emancipation. Instead students and teachers should see each other as equals in the process of learning. Teachers may learn from students likewise students from teachers. Freire encourages teacher to assist students to develop the sense of critical consciousness so as to realize that the culture of silence is created to oppress. The culture of silence eliminates paths of thought that lead to language of critique. Proponents of critical pedagogy include Che-Guevara (1928-1967), Karl Marx and Angels.

How can Freire’s critical pedagogy be accounted as the source of liberation of developing countries in particular Africa from 1950s to 1960s?

e) Normative or Parallel Philosophies and Teaching

Other current “parallel” philosophies or “normative” philosophies of our time that influence teaching are: progressivism, essentialism, perrenialism, re-constructionism, and constructivism. Normative or parallel philosophies refer to theories of education that make use of the results from philosophical thought about different issues in education in turn they influence teaching.

Progressivism is the parallel philosophy to pragmatism. This is because it is a direct outcome of the influence of pragmatism on education, whose claims are, that “human development progresses through direct evolutionary states.” The central theme is that progress takes place through experimentation. It requires teacher to emphasize on “whole personality” of the child when teaching. Consequently, progressivists argue that teachers must properly attend every stage of the learning child. Based on this belief, the curriculum should be made of the experiences of actual daily living in various situations. Kilpatrick W. Heard (1871-1925) is one of the exponents of progressivism philosophy. It is emphasized that the curriculum be made up of the sum total of the child’s experiences.

Essentialism is one of the conservative philosophical stances which is rooted in both realism and idealism. The focus when teaching is laid on essential skills, academic subjects, mastery of concepts and principles of subject matter. It encourages teachers to teach students the knowledge of a certain society or community through core curricula. The essentialist educators believe that students should be taught basing on some established principles. As such they urge teachers to go back to “basics.” This is due to its belief that “reality is a phenomenon that surrounds a person.” As such, teachers may borrow its proposals for teaching students or learners the “essentials” in their environment. The essentialists’ aim is to ensure that students get relevant academic knowledge, patriotism, and character development through traditional or basic approaches. So the teacher is expected to cultivate the basic values to students.

Perrenialism is a parallel philosophy to idealism. This is because the two polarities share some beliefs for instance on wisdom and reasoning. The two philosophies equally are conservative in their actions. It is believed by perrenialists that teachers should teach things that persons perceive having unending importance in life to all peoples everywhere. As such, in curricula perrenialism teachers believe that most of the important topics develop a person. Such topics include cultural beliefs, good judgment, justice, and wisdom. It emphasizes teachers to teach principles example principles of education rather than facts about education. Perrenialists focus is primarily on teaching, reasoning, wisdom rather than facts, liberal arts rather than vocational training.

Reconstructionism, this is one of the philosophies rooted in the critical pedagogy as it was founded by Paul Freire. The philosophy resulted into an educational movement of reconstructionism. The movement calls for the teaching process to empower students to develop consciousness that is the ability for the student to relate the learnt theories in their mind into practice in their contexts rather than “banking” such principles in the head. Once the teacher succeeds to guide students to the liberating knowledge, students become conscious of the situations, problems surrounding them. Consequently, such students become awake by evaluating critically the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats likewise possibilities in solving problems constructively. The critical pedagogy is founded by various philosophies such as Karl Marx’s theory and feminism.

Another contemporary philosophy that teachers need to be acquainted with is feminism.

This movement emanates from awareness of women that they are being oppressed by males. It aims at redefining the position of the woman in the society by establishing, defending equal rights economically, and political even social rights. The movement calls for educationists to reconsider “gender equality” that is equal distribution of wealth, tasks, responsibilities and other opportunities. Gender refers to both sexes of male and female in struggling for equal balanced sexism and gender roles it emphasizes that equality and equity can be achieved in the society because stereotypes about women is socially constructed.

Reflection?

Q. Think how you can account the impact of feminism in your daily teaching carrier?

Q. How is gender mainstreaming a reality in teaching and learning processes today?

Constructivists’ claims may well be understood through Lev Vygostsky (1896-1934). Being the founder of constructivism, his philosophy is on assumption premises distinguishing “what a learner can do without help and what s/he can do with help”. The difference of what the learner can do without help and what s/he can do with help is termed as “Zonal of Proximal Development” (ZPD). The ZDP is the view that belongs to social constructivists’ view that was founded by Vygostsky. The ZPD view requires teachers to understand that children as learners are capable of following adults guidance. As such, educator’s role is to give children experiences within their contextual zones of proximal development. What educators should do is to provide guidance, or collaboration, with little guidance, less telling, without punishment, by giving chance to learners to discover, termed as “scaffolding children learning.” This philosophy has shifted paradigm of teaching from less participatory/involving to methods of teaching and learning to more involving participatory methods in most schools of East Africa.

Perrenialists philosophy opposes that reality is wholly objective. Despite reality being objective, it is also relative. In other words, it may be viewed objectively and subjectively basing on the view of an individual. The central theme is that learners may learn with minimal assistance in solving problems (scaffolding) if they are left to discover thing subjectively.Vygotsky is one of the exponents of constructivism.

Reflection?

Q. Do you notice why recently there has been an emphasis of urging teachers to employ more involving Teaching/Learning methods?

Q. Debate the urge for teachers to employ more participatory Teaching/Learning methods with your fellows basing on ZPD theory.

Q. How is Vygotsky’s thesis of scaffolding of importance in our classrooms today?

Philosophies about Knowledge in Teaching

The second fundamental questions that philosophers have attempted to answer include what is knowledge? The questions are how should knowledge be? Through which method/sources should knowledge be delivered and disseminated? How can a person count him/herself to have enough knowledge? These questions relate greatly with the processes of teaching and learning as assumptions below indicate.

On one hand, idealists assume all knowledge to be independent of sense experience. This is because they think knowledge takes place within the mind. It is argued that the mind is active and contains innate capacities for organizing and synthesizing the data through sensations. For the idealists a person may know intuitively without sensing some realities. On the other hand, realists differ from idealists in believing that all knowledge is derived from experience. For the realist knowledge is that which is objective. It is held that there is a world of real existence that human beings have not constructed. This is the real existence that can be known by human mind. It is added that the knowledge from the objective world obtained through empirical five senses is the only reliable knowledge. As such, teachers are encouraged to organize, separate subject matter, content and knowledge that classifies real objects. For realists it is added that the most general and abstract subjects should be at the top of the curriculum hierarchy giving particular and transitory subjects at a lower order of priority. Teaching should stress Logic and lessons that exercise the mind and cultivate rational thought. Concepts and systems that can be organized into subjects such as ethical, political and economic thought should be emphasized. Finally, realist views teachers as subject matter experts seen as a source of authority and reality and truth that emanates from both science and arts.

For the naturalists scientific knowledge is of the highest value. The naturalists discourage formalized knowledge into syllabi and bookish knowledge from books. For the naturalist, knowledge is that which emanates from nature enabling a learner to express him/herself. For existentialists knowledge should be one about contingency of human life. Teaching should provide knowledge of contingency, which considers experiences of fear, uncertainty, and finally that knowledge should prepare learners to face such situations courageously including death acceptance. Unlike existentialists progressivism whose roots are in pragmatism views knowledge as something tentative that may explain the existing reality. It views knowledge as growth and development. For pragmatists knowledge is always tentative and functional not fixed. It stresses physical and social experiences. It emphasizes on more and more education. Finally, it advocates teachers to promote democratic and social living among students.

For constructivism “what a learner can do without help and what s/he can do with help” is termed by Vygotsky as the “zonal of proximal development (ZPD). It is viewed as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or collaboration with more capable peers. This philosophy encourages teachers to view their students as capable of viewing the world to discover some truth or knowledge with less guidance. Perrenialism advocates teachers to equip students with things they regard as having permanent values in their lives through discovery.

For essentialists teachers should provide knowledge on what is relevant in the context of learners. Essentialists propose to teachers to leave away irrelevant contents and teach few relevant basics. An essentialist suggests to teachers to emphasize essential skills such as 3Rs that is reading, writing, and arithmetic; likewise essential subjects like English, History, mathematics, and foreign languages. Besides those essentialists proposals to teachers it is also concerned with facts and knowledge. Also, it is interested in conceptual thought, principles and theories of subject matter. For reconstructionists skills and subjects need to identify and ameliorate problems of society. Learning is active, when it is concerned with contemporary and future society. Finally, for the feminists argue that teachers are supposed to be concerned with the question “whose knowledge” is being considered. Feminists are critical to traditional epistemology arguing for ways of understanding knowledge that focus on context and situation. While feminists do not suggest that the empirical evidence is wrong, they argue that most beliefs on women are much a result of their social context as they are factually true. The particulars of knowledge construction are the main focus for the feminist epistemologists rather than universal circumstances for justifying knowledge.

General Views on Values from Different Philosophies

General Views on Correctness of arguments from Different Philosophies

PHILOSOPHIES ASSUMPTIONS ON TEACHING REALITIES

Realities in this volume refer to issues of education as reflected in the classroom situation. The questions teachers might raise include: Whence curriculum? How is philosophy of teaching and philosophies related to curriculum contents that are executed by teachers in schools? What is the rationale for ministries of education to change curriculum from time to time? Follow closely the different philosophers’ assumptions on curriculum (curricula) below:

Curriculum Contents as a Reality

Curriculum has been described in hundreds of definitions without arriving at consensus. However, the most used definition is that “…curriculum refers to subject matter or a body of content to be taught to students…”For the idealists, any “subject that provides adequate opportunities for the development of the creative self” is fit to enter into curriculum. Its source should focus on intellectual abilities. In contrast realists view the curriculum as the means for forming learner’s desirable habits. Such habits should be achieved through the mastery of subject-matter or contents.

Naturalists propose curricula contents draw their content from focused reality namely nature. As such, children sensory organs which for them are gate ways of knowledge and key experiences have to be trained right from the earlier stages of schooling, such as pre-primary stage. Again naturalists focus on five subjects that are regarded to be holistic in the sense that they cover main objectives of human’s life. The imperative subjects viewed by naturalists as imperative not to miss in curriculum include: physiology, physical, natural sciences, mathematics and languages.

For existentialists, the source of curriculum content should not be prescribed by experts but rather it should emanate from student’s needs or interests. This implies that students should be the ones to choose their curriculum or curricula. Existentialists emphasize that the curriculum content should emanate from learners’ economic, political, social, cultural environment/context. On the curriculum content existentialists put more emphasis on humanistic studies such as history, geography, and political science, to mention few, but less emphasis on scientific studies.

Basing on their central philosophical claim that “what works is what is true”, the pragmatist teachers neither support the rigid prescribed (prearranged) nor the unprescribed (unplanned) curricula. Pragmatists are flexible on the type of curriculum that works and practical. If the two categories of curricula work, pragmatists are ready to employ both. However, they propose to integrate the curriculum with the life and experiences of children/learners. For them life and experience of the pupil should be integrated with activities of the school. It is for this purpose that the idea of eclecticism or integrated curricula comes. It means that no single curriculum, philosophy, or method is capable of solving all problems. Pragmatists are of view that it is good to combine multiple working entities when planning curricula. See what works from idealists, realists, existentialists, pragmatists and integrate such values in curricula. Perrenialists’ curricula contain most of the important topics though to develop a person. Reconstructionists propose the curriculum to emphasize on social sciences and social research methods. It has to focus on the present and future trends as well as on the national and international issues.

Tanzania is one of African countries that attempted to change the curricula following the Self-reliance thesis of Mwalimu Nyerere. To what extent did the changes follow up pragmatists’ philosophy?

Has your country of choice changed the curriculum of any level of learning? If yes identify end elaborate, which philosophy guided the changes.

Views on Knowledge from different Philosophies

The second theme that philosophers attempt to answer is what knowledge is. The questions are how should knowledge be? Through which method/sources should knowledge be delivered and disseminated? How is knowledge related to teaching? How does knowledge influence teaching?

Views on Truth from Different Philosophies in Teaching

The Teacher as an Agent for the Changing Reality

How do philosophies propose about the place of a teacher in teaching? How should relationship be? In section one you learnt aims of education of idealists. So the teaching process will be along these purposes. First the teacher has the role to understand his pupils thorough if possible by name. Likewise, the teacher is supposed to have mastery of subject contents. Secondly, idealism urges you to be a role model and be imitated by your learners, example in “smartness.” Idealists regard you teacher as a key figure not a student. Thus, in teaching you are supposed to dominate the class, and the learner is assumed as an empty receptacle. Critically, this is what is known as teacher-centred teaching. Since one of its aims is to stress on spiritual environment, then the teacher or head teacher is expected to be aware of idealist curriculum that demands religion to be taught to students. Consequently, the school time table will have a place for religious subjects. In case you will be a head or academic teacher you will have to ensure students are allowed to go for their respective religious classes. On the aim of self-realization, the teacher has to ensure that students reach at self-actualisation. As such, the teaching academic subjects should only be a guide towards discovery of concrete realities of life.

Realists do not attach much importance on teacher’s personality as idealism does. Instead it urges the students to be taught by practical examples about realities surrounding them. Students should be assisted by teachers to give their opinions. Teaching should involve students through concrete observations to discover truth or solve their problems. Naturalists propose the place of the teacher in the classroom to be behind the scene not to dominate the platform. It hinders teachers to impart knowledge to students as if they are empty vessels. Teachers should create a platform and provide students to learn naturally. It means that teachers should remain observing how their guidance is proceeding among groups of students. Pragmatists urge teacher s to interpret knowledge as a process in which reality is constantly changing. Likewise be informed that learning occurs as the person engages in problem solving.

Perennialists emphasize teachers to teach principles of things with permanent values rather than facts. Perennialists focus primarily on teaching reasoning and wisdom, rather than facts. Emphasis is on teachers to teach liberal arts rather than vocational training skills. For the essentialists the teacher is considered as a master of a particular subject and a model worthy emulation. The teacher being authority has to control the classroom, decide on the curricula with minimal student input. The teacher is considered by essentialists as a master of a particular subject and a model worthy of emulation. The teacher is, in authority and controls the classroom, decides on the curriculum with minimal student input. Meanwhile, reconstructionists view the teacher as a servant who should be an agent of reforms. S/he needs to assist students to become aware of problems confronting the mankind.

Reflection?

Can you think the rationale why public schools include religious subjects in the school timetable?

In teaching practice you will be required to know your students by names likewise the subject matter. Do you see the rationale why you will do so?

Do you think teacher centred practice does justice to students?

The Learner as a Focus of the Changing Reality

How do philosophies say about the place of a learner/pupil or a student in relation to the teacher? What is the place of a teacher in teaching? How should the relationship between teachers and students be? When does learning of knowledge occur?

Idealists regard a student as an organism to be molded by the teacher. As such, a student is a spiritual being. It is added that the learner is seen as angelic and has to adhere to what the teacher provides. Critically speaking, viewing the student in this way is an assumption of the learner to depend on the teacher, hence dependent and passive. Realists view the learner as an organism of highly developed brain. For pragmatist the teachers should let learners free to choose what to study and also to determine what is true and by what criteria to determine these truths. It is added that learners are free to choose from the many available learning situations. Above all, learners should be left free to choose the knowledge they wish to learn. Teachers should be informed that learning occurs when a learner is engaged in problem solving.

THE PHILOSOPHIES THAT UNDERLIE THE TEACHING METHODS

Teaching Methods as the Means for Changing Reality

Teachers should understand philosophical theories that underlie teaching and learning methods before using any one of them. Teachers too might raise the following

How do philosophies say about the Teaching methods? Through which ways or sources should knowledge be arrived at?

In the teaching process idealists propose ideal-centered methods of teaching. For this purpose speculation through meditation, reasoning and thinking are also methods through which students may be assisted to arrive at knowledge. In the classroom situation idealists encourage the use of discussion and lecture methods are used. It is in this group that Socratic method falls in this category. Socrates used it by questioning them first and then proceeded to involve them in discussion. However, the lecture method has been underscored by several people. Find out the advantages of lecture method and explain how you can improve it.

Unlike idealists realists support lectures, discussion but add symposium. Besides that realist proposes to the teacher to employ audio-visual methods in teaching. Audio-visuals are said to be capable of developing sensory powers of the of learners in particular children. View human beings rational beings able to search truth through reasoning and obtaining truth by revelation source.

Naturalists promote the “mother nature” as the best method of teaching. Teachers are encouraged to let their students to “learn by doing” rather from words. They too encourage teachers to expose their students to learn by experience, by observing. Naturalists discourage text books and count such strategy. Take for instance of mwl. J.K Nyerere, who said, nature teaches instantly like when ‘a child plays with fire it burns instantly” If one goes without precaution on slippery ground s/he falls down.”

Existentialists on their part support Socratic method in teaching, however

Pragmatism view teaching and learning to processes of reconstructing experience according to the scientific method. It is added that “effective learning” occurs when a teacher involves learners during the lesson in an active way. For pragmatist it is said that knowing results from experiencing and the use of scientific method. Furthermore, pragmatists inform the teachers that learning occurs as a student engages in problem solving. For pragmatists teachers should view the process of leading a student at knowledge as holistic not as separate. As such, nothing may be viewed intelligently except in relation to a pattern. It is theorized that this is because “the whole affects the parts, while the parts and the whole are relative” It is concluded that teaching is more exploratory through the scientific investigation. In this way pragmatism views the best way of arriving at knowledge through empirical source.

Teaching Materials, What is the place of T/L materials in teaching? How should the relationship be between a learner and learning material?

T/L Environment

What is the place of T/L environment in teaching? How should the environment be between a learner and learning material?

Values versus Assessment and Evaluation in Teaching

Relativism Views on Values in Teaching

What is value? But how does the question of values relate to teaching is our main concern here. This is another fundamental question that philosophers as you saw in part one have been wrestling with. The question of values belongs properly to axiological branch of philosophy. The branch has two issues: One is ethics that deals with issues of ethics and morals about “ought to”. Judgment of how a human ought to act belongs to axiology. human actions properly belong to ethics. Teachers may ask, how is human child and teachers ought to behave in the school or classroom contexts? This calls for us to consider the issue of behaving, responsibilities, discipline, even the “judgment of issues.” The second issue is “aesthetics” about beauties. The question of judgment whether something is good or bad/evil leads us to acknowledge the philosophy of relativism. Relativists argue on premise that “beauty is in the eye of the seer” This means that what one person values as good, beautiful or handsome, another person on the same things, view them as bad, ugly, and gloomy. This leads us to understand that people are divided in judging what a good or bad thing is. Relativists conclude that “beauty is relative” because the moment you say honey is sweet you find that sugar too is. You may ask, what is the place of students’ behaviour in teaching? Should I punish students because of misbehaving? What do philosophers say about issues of values in teaching and learning?

Idealists assume that a pupil cannot realize his/her spiritual potentialities without disciplined guidance from the teacher. There is no such thing as free discipline, lest it leads a child astray. It is for this purpose that teachers should teach moral and religious instruction for students to behave well. For realists’ values are absolute and eternal and are based on the natural laws.

For pragmatists values are viewed as situational and contingent depending on the accuracy, event, place and time. For this purpose values are relative and hence subjective.

The questions are how should the curriculum be? What should be its contents?

Values are notoriously underlying the process of teaching because they trigger the issue of judging realities of teaching as “good (effective) and evil or good and bad(ineffective)” in this area. Values belong to the branch of axiology, which relate to sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics. While ethics is concerned with the issue of “ought to” aesthetics refers to the question of judgment about issues of beauty. Assessment and evaluation are typically issues of judging quality or worthiness of what has been taught in the classroom situations.

……………………………………………………………..

Summary

Hopefully this lecture has been of interest to you. It is expected that you have been exposed to different philosophies at different levels. It is also hoped that you have discovered that the way a teacher instills knowledge to students begins from being exposed to philosophy of education and teaching/ learning. Suffice to say that every teacher abides by one or a few consolidated together. The philosophies which were covered in this lecture were idealism, realism regarded as (traditional), naturalism, liberalism, and existentialism situated in (modern period). Others were pragmatism, progressivism, and pragmatism, constructive, and gender (regarded as contemporary). Others were normative philosophies which included essentialism, reconstructionism, and even perrenialism. So now you are in the position to say why is it important for a teacher to abide by at teaching?

Activity

Q. On this section the space does not allow to go beyond the precise notes on philosophies and philosophy. As such, go to the library to write exhaustively about contents of each.

Q. Philosophy and their impact on teaching.

Q. Visit (Google Scholar) click, find out the claims, and write of each one on internet then write brief notes on those philosophers about teaching.

Q.Compare and contrast critical pedagogy of Paul Freire from that of Pragmatism of John Dewey.

Q. Why is it important for a teacher to abide by a teaching philosophy?

“The way a teacher instills knowledge among students begins from a philosophy of education and teaching” Discuss.

References:

Seetharamu, A.S. (2004). Philosophies of education. New Delhi: S.B. Nangia.

Aggarwal, J.C. (2003). Teacher and education in a developing society.Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.

Sigalla, R. J. (2003). Curriculum Development. Dar es Salaam: OUT.

Njoroge, R.J. and Benaars, G.A (1994). Philosophy and Education in Africa. Nairobi: Transafrica

Vygostky, L.S.(2011). Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes, at www.googleRetrieved 21/11/011.

Berk,L. and Winsler,A. (1995). “Vygostsky: His Life and works” In scaffolding children learning: Vygotsky’s approach to development. at www.wikipadedia .org/org/wiki/educational philosophy retrieved 21/11/011.

Frankena,W.K; Nathan, R; and Burbules,N. (2002). “Philosophy of Education” In

www.wikipadedia org/org/wiki/educational philosophy retrieved 21^st Nov.2011.

Howick,W.H.(1971). Philosophies of Western Education.pg.49. In wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_essentialism retrieved 26^th Nov. 2011

McLaren, Peter and Lankshear, Colin (eds.) (1994), Politics of Liberation. Paths from Freire, London and New York: Routledge.

McLaren, Peter (2000) Che Guevara, Paulo Freire and the Pedagogy of Revolution, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.

Mayo, Peter (2004, 2008), Liberating Praxis. Paulo Freire's Legacy for Radical Education and Politics, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger; Rotterdam and Taipei: Sense.

www.teachers rock.net/teacher%20professionalism.retrieved 15^th May, 011.

Presseley, L.(2005). Whose knowledge is it anyway? Carolina: Greensboro GISS

Further Readings

Visit the following blogs read more:

www.wikipadedia

www.parvez.video.com/idealism-theory.asp,retrieved in August, 2011.

Teachers College Record Volume 109 Number 4, 2007, p. 1013-1055 http://www.tcrecord.org/library retrieved November 2011

Teachers College Record Volume 109 Number 4, 2007, p. 1013-1055 http://www.tcrecord.org/library

Teachers College Record Volume 109 Number 4, 2007, p. 1013-1055 http://www.tcrecord.org/librar

"Feminism – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". www.merriam-webster.com. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feminism. Retrieved 12 June 2011. "Definition of feminism noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online: Free English Dictionary and Thesaurus". dictionary.cambridge.org.

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/feminism. Retrieved 12 June 2011.

"feminism definition – Dictionary – MSN Encarta". encarta.msn.com.

http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861610952. Retrieved 12 June 2011.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition. Houghton Mifflin. 2006. ISBN 9780618701728.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

PRACTISING PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING THROUGH PORTFOLIOS

Lecture thirteen exposed you to some great thinkers’ propositions about four fundamental questions (FQs) in relation to education and teaching. Their attempt to answer four fundamental questions on what is reality, knowledge, values, and correct arguments, led us to consider their claims as philosophies. The influence of each on teaching was presented for you to recognize them as you prepare yourself for challenging carrier of teaching. Chapter fourteen takes you through the concept of applied philosophy along the concepts of skills, teaching portfolios.

At the end lecture fourteen you will be able to:

Describe effective teaching in relation to philosophy of teaching;
Identify teaching strategies that lead to effective teaching;
Apply “philosophical assumptions to clearly teach classroom situation effectively;
Determine effective teachers through lenses of philosophical assumptions;
Discriminate effective from ineffective strategies that make a teacher effective;
Relate the concept of qualitative to effective teaching;
Analyse the features of effective teaching;
Critique teaching strategies versus claims of different philosophies.

Concept of Teaching Effectiveness

Philosophy of Teacher’s Portfolios as Relevant Means to Reflective Teaching

Excellence in teaching has become popularized in schools, yet how does one demonstrate this to colleagues or employers? One answer is portfolio which is a description of an instructor‘s major strengths and teaching achievements. The philosophical statements about personal teaching philosophy and learning provide the foundation for all other elements found in portfolio. Recently the Open University of Tanzania introduced the component of portfolio for teachers which are assessed during face to face sessions for continuing student teachers. This is an attempt to equip student teachers with reflective skills on the profession they prepare to undertake. Since the inception of the teaching portfolios, there is inadequate information on how portfolios are effective. This raises serious questions on: How does the portfolio relate to philosophy of teaching field and learning processes? Does a portfolio have relevance to teaching and learning processes? These questions may be partly answered by looking at purposes of portfolios below:

Functions of a Teaching Portfolio

Portfolios describe documents and materials which collectively demonstrate the scope and quality of a teacher’s teaching proficiency. Teacher’s teaching portfolio is a means to document, reflect upon, and improve your teaching and your students’ learning. The portfolio is described as a space for you to record and think about your teaching of students both in and outside of the classroom. You can use it to examine what you have learned through both personal experience and professional development activities, and thereby develop and analyse more effective approaches to your teaching. The teaching portfolio can serve as a vital component of any teacher’s as research process.

Teacher’s teaching portfolio is among the valuable resource for demonstrating teaching teacher’s abilities and accomplishments to other people such as employers, supervisors, inspectors to see. Thus the materials from teacher’s portfolio allow others to see beneath the surface of his/her teaching performance to observe and understand the thinking that directs the teaching act. It helps a teacher to develop and articulate his/her core values of teaching and learning and support values with evidence. It further allows the teacher to practice discussing teaching in thoughtful and convincing manner. Finally, it establishes teacher’s commitment to personal development in teaching and to strengthen student learning. Are there common guidelines to have common understanding about teaching portfolios?

Principles that guide Effective Teaching Portfolios

Effective teaching portfolios are guided by four basic ideas:

Portfolios are designed and compiled with a specific purpose in mind;
Developed for a specific audience;
It contains written reflective statements about student learning, teacher practice, teaching as research; diversity, and learning community; and
Portfolio contain evidence like lesson plans, data about student learning, instructional materials, and other documents that the ideas in teacher’s reflective statements;

Having seen principles on portfolio, one may inquire as per what is the essence of the portfolio?

Major Components of the Teaching Portfolio

The typical teaching portfolio might include:

Philosophy of education, basic ideas about how learning takes place;
Statement of teaching responsibilities;
Outline of learning goals;
Discussion of relation between goals, teaching strategies, assessments, and more broadly personal philosophy of teaching and learning;
Documentation and analysis of student learning outcomes; and
A development plan, based on information gained during the process of compiling a portfolio.

Portfolio Goals are Teaching Skills

A goal of a teaching portfolio is to advance and demonstrate teacher’s teaching skills. Skills refer to competencies or abilities to perform certain duties in certain specialization such as teaching. The skills of a successful teacher are many and complex, yet they may be categorized into three domains intellectual, motivational, and interpersonal skills as they can be read in http://trc.virginia.edu/tc/2003/portfolioWorkshop.html

Learning Skills

Thinking skills

Planning skills

Facilitation skills

Communication skills

Management skills

a) Intellectual Skills

Identification

These include teaching approaches on how you to identify goals, integrate a variety of well-organized teaching strategies to achieve those goals. Teaching skills too include how you assess student needs and flexibility responds to those needs. Likewise, strategies how you intend to promote learning for all students;

Innovation

This includes strategies how to find new information on teaching approaches and try them. Also, how you integrate new ideas in a planned manner. Whether you deliberately take risks to find successful innovations which promote student learning;

Designs

This sub-domain is about skills of performing meaningful and significant measures of student learning. Distinguishing used strategies and innovations and their impact on individual students with different learning styles, interests and different motivations;

Knowledge

This refers to whether you stay current in your field and share knowledge with students in his/her classes. How you make new knowledge seem more interesting and relevant to students;

b) Motivational Skills

Commitment to teaching

This involves your commitment to teaching, goals orientation, and integrated perception skills on whether you make yourself available to your students;

Goals orientation

Includes skills, whether you explicitly outline your goals and expectations for students;

Integrated perception

Includes skills, whether you help students’ link classroom experience to the broader context of their lives;

Positive action

Includes skills, whether you help students achieve by motivating them with a desire to succeed;

Reward Orientation

Includes skills, whether you reward successful students’ performance and whether your reward structure is understood by your learners.

c) Interpersonal Skills

Objectivity

Includes skills, whether you can handle tough situations calmly and objectively concentrating on solution rather than on blames;

Active listening

Includes skills, whether you paraphrase student questions and concerns for clarification? Whether you may attend to non-verbal signs;

Rapport

Includes skills, whether you achieve and maintain a favourable relationship with students; and whether you perceive the way such relationship impact on your learners;

Empathy

Whether you can reach out to students in need and recognize student feelings;

It may be impossible to include all these issues in your portfolio. However, incorporate issues that you consider appropriate for the purposes and goals of your portfolio. Take the audience of your portfolio in consideration.

Conclusion:

The description reflects greatly about the philosophy behind portfolio. Being an articulated documented philosophy in practice, it tells why teachers should invest their time in preparing teaching portfolio. It is not the wastage of time and resources, but teaching portfolio is a reflection of applied specialization of philosophy teaching. Rather it was hinted that portfolio allows any professional teacher to document teaching accomplishments within his/her discipline. It leads to ownership of teachers’ development in teaching and learning. Likewise, it tracks how teachers integrate what they learnt in their professional development activities into their teaching. It demonstrates teachers’ successes in promoting learning by all students and finally it reveals how teachers are rational in doing reflectively about their teaching a profession.

References

Bartlett, L. (1990).Teacher development through reflective teaching. In J.C Richards and D. Nunan (Eds), Second Language Teacher Education. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Goodyear, G. E. and Douglas, A. (2009). Reflective teaching strategies to promote students Autonomy. University of Texas: El Paso.

www.tttjournal.com.uk Retrieved May, 2011.

http://trc.virginia.edu/tc/2003/portfolioWorkshop.html

Further Readings

Weimer, M. (2006). “Philosophy of Teaching.” In Australian Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 31, No.2.

http://www.teachersrock.net/TEACHER%20PROFESSIONALISM.pdf.Retrieved 15/5/011

Activity

Compare and contrast teaching philosophy from philosophy of teaching.

Philosophy of teaching is seen through documented teaching philosophy. Discuss.

Basing on given guidelines and cases write your personal philosophy.

Students’ Portfolios practice at the Open University of Tanzania is the wastage of resources. Critically, argue for or against this statement.

LECTURE FOURTEEN

BASIC FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Introduction:

Lecture twelve presented to you the synthesis of the two terms of philosophy and teaching. It is expected that you will be able to realize that when philosophy specializes within teaching it leads to specialization of philosophy of teaching. Deep analysis was made for you to reflect. It guided you to comprehend how philosophy as a theory gets its application in teaching as a specialization. Despite a lot of descriptions of teaching, yet an important issue of how philosophy of teaching grounds teachers to teach effectively was not given weight anywhere. Once a teacher has been grounded in philosophy of teaching, and having developed her/his teaching philosophy, it is expected that s/he will teach not only rationally but also effectively. Lecture thirteen focuses at this important concept of effectiveness, which relates to philosophical concept of quality of teaching.

Lecture objectives

At the of lecture thirteen you will be able to:

Describe effective teaching;
Relate the concept of quality to teaching;
Analyze the features of effective teaching;
Apply philosophical assumptions to clearly teach classroom situation effectively;
Determine effective teachers through lenses of philosophical assumptions
Discriminate effective strategies from ineffective ones that make a teacher effective
Critique teaching strategies versus claims of different philosophies

Concept on Teaching Effectiveness

Teaching is termed as a scholarly activity, when it is purposeful, reflective, documented and shared in evaluative forum for effectiveness. Philosophy of teaching as a specialization calls for teachers to be effective. The rationale for the call is because one of the aims for grounding teachers in philosophy of teaching with various ontological, epistemological, axiological and logical knowledge, skills and attitudes related to teaching profession is the zeal to achieve effectiveness. It is assumed that every teacher wants to be effective. The desire for effectiveness arises from the teacher’s professional commitment as well as from the demanding task of organizing and managing the school in which education takes place reflectively.

Reflective Teaching

Effectiveness in teaching can be understood by looking at features and criteria that a teacher can use to judge oneself as an effective or not. Komba (1997) observes that one of the prerequisite criteria to be effective is to possess attitudes and skills necessary for reflection and problem solving. This requires a teacher to be reflective. How does one know effective teaching? When does it occur? Here follows some suggested features of effective teaching.

Features of Effective Teaching

First, you will teach reflectively, in case you create continuous learning situations among yourselves. Ensure that your teaching has three features that go hand in hand: have a culture of caring yourself and others for not getting discouraged because of some personal gains such as when the government delays your salary. Prioritize your fellows first and you will be caring others. Likewise, to be effective teachers needs to have control of a knowledge base. This base will guide the art of teaching both in and out of the class.

Secondly, have a constructivist’s orientation, meaning to be constructive when teaching with artistic approach to problem solving. It means as a teacher you will have to be flexible in accordance to beats of how students’ behaviour changes. In so doing regurgitation of teaching for examinations will cease. When you do so you will be applying constructivism approach rather than authoritarian one. The constructive approach lets students to create their own concepts by way of discovering the Ah! with little guidance. An effective teacher can be judged for having a minimum number of models, strategies, approaches and procedures to be able to perform well in all functions of this/her profession; this is what is regarded as repertoire of effective teaching. The repertoire should increase with experience. Effective teachers equally have the attitudes and skills necessary for reflection and problem solving. This is because professional practice is learnable and that it is experience coupled with careful analysis and reflection that produces learning.

Third an artistic to problem solving, refers to always searching for causes of what is happening to the students, school environment, to staff and to global events. Apply the discovered causes to solve the problems.

Life Long Learning and Teaching

Equally, effective teachers consider learning to teach as life-long learning process. It means that they possess command of knowledge. Sufficient repertoire or accumulated range of practice alone does not make an accomplished teacher. The accomplished teacher is a product of complex processes and it takes a long time to become an effective teacher unless there are consecutive practices. In-service training is an example of life long learning.

Functions of teaching

Classroom process
Teaching approaches
Quality and Teaching

References:

Komba, W.L.M. (Ed.). (1997). The teaching of History in Secondary Schools Training of Trainers Manual: Vol. 1. Dr es Salaam: up.

Mbunda, E.L and Counterparts (1992). Classroom Interaction Research Report. Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.

Suggested Readings

Callahan, J. F. & Clark, L. H. (1977), Foundations of Education. USA: Macmillan, P. H. Inc

Curren, R. (Ed) (2003) A Companion to the Philosophy of Education, Blackwell, Blackwell Publishing

Olela, H and Bennaars, G. A., Philosophy of Teaching, Lecture Series, University of Nairobi, College of Education and External Studies, Faculty of External Studies,Department of Education, Nairobi, 1993 (Lecture 2 pp. 10-18).

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