OGE 121 : BACKGROUND TO PHYSICAL RESOURCES --- THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA.

Q. with   specific  examples , explain   socio-economic   impacts  of   drought.

ANSWER

Drought is an extended period when a region receives a deficiency in its water supply, whether atmospheric, surface or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days

Consequences

Periods of droughts can have significant environmental, agricultural, health, economic and social consequences. The effect varies according to vulnerability. For example, subsistence farmers are more likely to migrate during drought because they do not have alternative food sources. Areas with populations that depend on as a major food source are more vulnerable to famine.

Drought can also reduce water quality^, because lower water flows reduce dilution of pollutants and increase contamination of remaining water sources. Common consequences of drought include:

• Diminished crop growth or yield productions and carrying capacity for livestock
• Dust bowls, themselves a sign of erosion, which further erode the landscape
• Dust storms, when drought hits an area suffering from desertification and erosion
• Famine due to lack of water for irrigation
• Habitat damage, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife^.
• Hunger, drought provides too little water to support food crops.
• Malnutrition, dehydration and related diseases
• Mass migration, resulting in internal displacement and international refugees
• Reduced electricity production due to reduced water flow through hydroelectric dams
• Shortages of water for industrial user^.
• Snake migration, which results in snakebite
• Social unrest
• War over natural resources, including water and food
• Wildfires, such as Australian bushfires, are more common during times of drought and even death of people
• Exposure and oxidation of acid sulfate soils due to falling surface and groundwater levels

OGE 121 : BACKGROUND TO PHYSICAL RESSOURCES -- THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA.

Q.  Describe  the   main  processes   involved  in  mechanical   weathering.

Mechanical Weathering

Let's say you're a big rock living in a national park. For the most part, life is good as you spend your days living outside in the natural environment. You get warmed by the sun on a daily basis and get cleaned by the gentle rains that occasionally fall on you.

However, over time, the constant exposure to forces, such as wind, water, cold and heat, take their toll on your rocky structure. These forces lead to mechanical weathering, which is defined as the physical breakdown of rock by environmental factors. In this lesson, we will take a look at how this process works and see examples of the different types of mechanical weathering.

The Process of Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering is a physical process that is constantly happening in nature because nature is always active, even if this activity is happening slower than our senses can detect. For example, we feel when temperatures fluctuate from daytime to nighttime, but we can't see a rock expanding and contracting due to this temperature fluctuation. However, this unperceivable movement does occur and it weakens the rock, eventually causing it to fracture and break down. This is just one example of how mechanical weathering happens.

OGE 121 : BACKGROUND TO PHYSICAL RESOURCES--THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA.

Q.  How   does  Mass  Wasting  differ   from  Soil  Erosion ?

Mass Wasting

If a rock slides off of a mountain and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound? Well, I don't know about the noise this activity would create, but I do know that mountains erode and that rocks and debris can slide and fall down mountain slopes in massive amounts. In this lesson, you will learn about a process called mass wasting and the factors that cause this movement of material.

Mass wasting, which is sometimes called mass movement or slope movement, is defined as the large movement of rock, soil and debris downward due to the force of gravity. In other words, the earth's outer crust is being 'wasted' away on a 'massive' scale and falling to lower elevations.

Mass wasting is a type of erosion and it is capable of making big changes to the side of a mountain. These changes can happen suddenly, as in one minute the rock is there and the next it is gone, or it can happen more slowly over time. You might think of this process as a landslide, and this term is sometimes used interchangeably with mass wasting. However, the term landslide is a bit limiting and does not allow for a description of the many different triggers and types of erosion that can happen on this large of a scale.

Causes of Mass Wasting

Now, we mentioned that mass wasting is mainly due to gravity. So we see that mountains have an ongoing tug-of-war with gravity. Gravity is constantly trying to pull rock and debris down the slope of a mountain. At the same time, the resistive forces of the mountain, including the cohesive strength and internal friction between the materials, referred to as the mountain's shear strength, constantly pulls back against gravity.

The shear strength works to maintain the slope's stability and keep the materials in place. This is a lot like a mountain climber gripping onto the side of a mountain and resisting gravity. The climber uses his grip strength to resist gravity, like the mountain uses its shear strength.

With this understanding, we see that the causes of mass wasting occur when gravitational force overcomes the resistive forces of the mountain. And, since gravitational pull is always constant, then we see that mass wasting occurs when something changes the mountain's ability to resist gravity.

For instance, an increased slope steepness increases mass wasting simply because the gravitational force acting on a steep slope is greater than the force acting on a gentle slope. Increasing the steepness of a slope is one way man can increase mass wasting. For example, if a road crew cuts away a slope to make room for a new road but makes the angle of the slope too steep, the slope will be prone to mass wasting, and you will want to cross your fingers when you drive past this steep slope so no rocks or debris fall on your car!

Increased water is another factor that plays an important role in mass wasting. Water can wash away small particles that help keep the mountainside intact. This is similar to what happens when a wave comes ashore and washes away a sandcastle. The abundant water breaks apart the small sand particles and destroys the structural stability of the castle you spent the afternoon building.

If an area has decreased vegetation, it will be more prone to mass wasting. Vegetation stabilizes soil particles on the surface and anchors soil under the surface through its root system. This is much like comparing two sand dunes on a beach. If one sand dune has grasses growing on it, it will resist the erosion of water and wind better than a sand dune without vegetation.

Another factor that plays a role in mass wasting is earthquakes. The violent shaking that occurs in a region where an earthquake takes place has the ability to break off sections of mountains or hills, causing them to slide down the slope.

What Is Soil Erosion?

When things erode, they wear away due to some force acting on them. Just look at any coastline and you will notice how the constant pounding force from wind and waves causes erosion of the rocky structures, leaving behind all kinds of interesting cliffs, caves and structures. Soil is not immune to erosion, and like rocks along a coastline, soil can erode due to the effects of forces, such as water, wind and farming practices. In this lesson, we will learn about soil erosion and the factors that cause it.

Soil is naturally created when small pieces of weathered rocks and minerals mix with organic materials from decaying plants and animals. Soil creation is a slow process, taking many years. However, the soil that is created is constantly subjected to natural and manmade forces that disrupt it.

Soil erosion is defined as the wearing away of topsoil. Topsoil is the top layer of soil and is the most fertile because it contains the most organic, nutrient-rich materials. Therefore, this is the layer that farmers want to protect for growing their crops and ranchers want to protect for growing grasses for their cattle to graze on.

Water Erosion and Surface Water Runoff

One of the main causes of soil erosion is water erosion, which is the loss of topsoil due to water. Raindrops fall directly on topsoil. The impact of the raindrops loosens the material bonding it together, allowing small fragments to detach. If the rainfall continues, water gathers on the ground, causing water flow on the land surface, known as surface water runoff. This runoff carries the detached soil materials away and deposits them elsewhere.

There are some conditions that can accentuate surface water runoff and therefore soil erosion. For example, if the land is sloped, there is a greater potential for soil erosion due to the simple fact that gravity pulls the water and soil materials down the slope. Also, water will have an easier time running across the surface, carrying topsoil with it, if the ground is already saturated due to heavy rains or the soil lacks vegetation to keep the soil in place.

OGE 225 : POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT---- THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA.

Q.Describe  the   main   postulates  of  the  Malthusian  population   theory.What  are   Malthus”  main  arguments   for   limiting  human    fertility ?

ANSWER

Malthusian Theory of Population 

Thomas Robert Malthus was the first economist to propose a systematic theory of population.  He articulated his views regarding population in his famous book, Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), for which he collected empirical data to support his thesis. Malthus had the second edition of his book published in 1803, in which he modified some of his views from the first edition, but essentially his original thesis did not change.

In Essay on the Principle of Population,Malthus proposes the principle that human populations grow exponentially (i.e., doubling with each cycle) while food production grows at an arithmetic rate (i.e. by the repeated addition of a uniform increment in each uniform interval of time). Thus, while food output was likely to increase in a series of twenty-five year intervals in the arithmetic progression 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and so on, population was capable of increasing in the geometric progression 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, and so forth.  This scenario of arithmetic food growth with simultaneous geometric human population growth predicted a future when humans would have no resources to survive on.  To avoid such a catastrophe, Malthus urged controls on population growth.

On the basis of a hypothetical world population of one billion in the early nineteenth century and an adequate means of subsistence at that time, Malthus suggested that there was a potential for a population increase to 256 billion within 200 years but that the means of subsistence were only capable of being increased enough for nine billion to be fed at the level prevailing at the beginning of the period. He therefore considered that the population increase should be kept down to the level at which it could be supported by the operation of various checks on population growth, which he categorized as "preventive" and "positive" checks.

The chief preventive check envisaged by Malthus was that of "moral restraint", which was seen as a deliberate decision by men to refrain "from pursuing the dictate of nature in an early attachment to one woman", i.e. to marry later in life than had been usual and only at a stage when fully capable of supporting a family. This, it was anticipated, would give rise to smaller families and probably to fewer families, but Malthus was strongly opposed to birth control within marriage and did not suggest that parents should try to restrict the number of children born to them after their marriage. Malthus was clearly aware that problems might arise from the postponement of marriage to a later date, such as an increase in the number of illegitimate births, but considered that these problems were likely to be less serious than those caused by a continuation of rapid population increase.

He saw positive checks to population growth as being any causes that contributed to the shortening of human lifespans. He included in this category poor living and working conditions which might give rise to low resistance to disease, as well as more obvious factors such as disease itself, war, and famine. Some of the conclusions that can be drawn from Malthus's ideas thus have obvious political connotations and this partly accounts for the interest in his writings and possibly also the misrepresentation of some of his ideas by authors such as Cobbett, the famous early English radical.  Some later writers modified his ideas, suggesting, for example, strong government action to ensure later marriages. Others did not accept the view that birth control should be forbidden after marriage, and one group in particular, called the Malthusian League, strongly argued the case for birth control, though this was contrary to the principles of conduct which Malthus himself advocated.

OEM 201 : EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP --- THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA.

Q.  With  examples  in  educational  context   evaluate  each  of   the  following  functions  of  management {  planning, organizing , controlling , coordinating  and  staffing }.

ANSWER

Organizing: Arranging everything and persons (all resources) to be at the right place and at the right time so that the performance of tasks may proceed smoothly.

Coordinating: Ensuring that the activities and contributions of all those working in the enterprise are properly combined and aligned to form a balanced and harmonious effective unit.

Directing: Deciding who, when and how employees carry out the tasks allocated to them.

Controlling: Checking regularly to ensure that performance tallies with plans, and if not, find out why, then review and take appropriate actions.

Staffing: Making sure the enterprise has the work-force it requires, and that all the staff are properly trained and groomed for current and future challenges.

Motivating: Ensuring that the urges, drives, desires, aspirations, striving or needs of employees are observed and harnessed as a way of influencing them to perform at a level high enough for achievement of the goals of the enterprise.

Communicating: Making sure information flows freely downwards, up­wards and side-ways so that management and the workforce know sufficiently enough to take informed and productive decisions and, at the same time, ensuring healthy relationships among individuals and units of the enterprise. 

Marshaling Resources: Ensuring efficient allocation of resources - hu­man, money (financial), materials and machines, in the operation of the business.

Forecasting: Looking into the future, ascertaining likely developments and opportunities for the purpose of setting out plans to optimally exploit avail­able opportunities.

Planning: Deciding what shall be done, by whom, when, where and how.

Decision Making: Considering the various alternatives of doing things and deciding which way to go, i.e. making choices concerning resource application, business opportunities and problems.

Problem Solving: Properly defining problems or obstacles in the way of good performance and removing such obstacles.

Leading: Influencing and getting commitment from employees to contrib­ute voluntarily and enthusiastically in the performance of needed tasks.