LW 200 :ADMINISTRATIVE LAW ----- UNIVESRSITY OF DAR--ES---SALAAM SCHOOL OF LAW.

LW  200 : ADMINISTRATIVE   LAW.

INTRODUCTION:

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Administrative law
General principles
Administrative court Delegated legislation Exhaustion of remedies Justiciability Legitimate expectation Ministerial act Natural justice Nondelegation doctrine Ouster clause (privative clause) Patently unreasonable Polycentricity Prerogative writ Certiorari Habeas corpus Mandamus Prohibition Quo warranto Rulemaking Ultra vires
Administrative law in common law jurisdictions
Australia Canada Singapore South Africa United Kingdom Scotland United States
Administrative law in civil law jurisdictions
China Mongolia Ukraine
Related topics
Constitutional law Judicial review
v t e

Administrative law in the United States often involves the regulatory activities of so-called "independent agencies", such as the Federal Trade Commission ("FTC"), whose Washington D.C. headquarters are shown above.

Administrative law is the body of law that governs the activities of administrative agencies of government. Government agency action can include rulemaking, adjudication, or the enforcement of a specific regulatory agenda. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law. As a body of law, administrative law deals with the decision-making of administrative units of government (for example, tribunals, boards or commissions) that are part of a national regulatory scheme in such areas as police law, international trade, manufacturing, the environment, taxation, broadcasting, immigration and transport. Administrative law expanded greatly during the twentieth century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to regulate the increasingly complex social, economic and political spheres of human interaction.
Civil law countries often have specialized courts, administrative courts, that review these decisions. The plurality of administrative decisions contested in administrative courts are related to taxation.^{[citation needed]}

Contents

• 1 Administrative law in common law countries
  • 1.1 Australia
  • 1.2 Canada
  • 1.3 England
  • 1.4 Singapore
  • 1.5 United States
    • 1.5.1 Historical development
    • 1.5.2 Agriculture
• 2 Administrative law in civil law countries
  • 2.1 France
  • 2.2 Germany
  • 2.3 Italy
    • 2.3.1 General administrative law
      • 2.3.1.1 Administrative Procedures Law
      • 2.3.1.2 Other legal sources
    • 2.3.2 Special administrative law
  • 2.4 The Netherlands
  • 2.5 Sweden
  • 2.6 Brazil
  • 2.7 Chile
  • 2.8 People's Republic of China
  • 2.9 Ukraine
• 3 See also
• 4 References
• 5 Further reading

Administrative law in common law countries

Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity.
While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from an administrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency.^{[citation needed]} This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.
The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is ultra vires. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v. New Brunswick), Wednesbury unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts viz. legitimate expectation and proportionality.
The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain Common Law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.

Australia

Main article: Australian administrative law

Canada

Main article: Canadian administrative law

England

Main article: English administrative law

Singapore

Main article: Administrative law in Singapore

United States

Main article: United States administrative law

In the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches.
In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many important^{[citation needed]} independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch.
Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law.
The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions^{[citation needed]} of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to "legislate" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), "adjudicate" (through administrative hearings), and to "execute" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. Agency procedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agency practice.
The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the Administrative Law Review, a quarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law.

Historical development

Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice since 1994, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, according to his book, Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy (3d Ed., 1992):

• English antecedents & the American experience to 1875
• 1875 – 1930: the rise of regulation & the traditional model of administrative law
• The New Deal
• 1945 – 1965: the Administrative Procedure Act & the maturation of the traditional model of administrative law
• 1965 – 1985: critique and transformation of the administrative process
• 1985 – ?: retreat or consolidation

Agriculture

The agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in various ways at the international, federal, state, and local levels. Consequently, administrative law is a significant component of the discipline of Agricultural Law. The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such as the Agricultural Marketing Service are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrative bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well.

Administrative law in civil law countries

Main article: Administrative court

Unlike most Common-law jurisdictions, the majority of civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases which, as a rule, will apply procedural rules specifically designed for such cases and different from that applied in private-law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims.

France

Main article:

In France, most claims against the national or local governments are handled by administrative courts, which use the Conseil d'État (Council of State) as a court of last resort. The main administrative courts are the tribunaux administratifs and appeal courts are the cours administratives d'appel. The French body of administrative law is called "droit administratif".^[1]

This section requires expansion. (June 2008)

Germany

Administrative law in Germany, called “Verwaltungsrecht”de:Verwaltungsrecht (Deutschland), generally rules the relationship between authorities and the citizens and therefore, it establishes citizens’ rights and obligations against the authorities. It is a part of the public law, which deals with the organization, the tasks and the acting of the public administration. It also contains rules, regulations, orders and decisions created by and related to administrative agencies, such as federal agencies, federal state authorities, urban administrations, but also admission offices and fiscal authorities etc. Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles.

• Principle of the legality of the authority, which means that there is no acting against the law and no acting without a law.
• Principle of legal security, which includes a principle of legal certainty and the principle of nonretroactivity
• Principle of proportionality, which says that an act of an authority has to be suitable, necessary and appropriate^[2]

Administrative law in Germany can be divided into general administrative law and special administrative law.

Italy

Main article:

Administrative law in Italy, known as “Diritto amministrativo”, is a branch of public law, whose rules govern the organization of the public administration and the activities of the pursuit of the public interest of the public administration and the relationship between this and the citizens. Its genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State. The administrative power, originally called "executive", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law. Its genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State. The administrative power, originally called "executive", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law.^[3]

General administrative law

The general administration law is basically ruled in the Administrative Procedures Law (Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz [VwVfG]). Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), the social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law (Abgabenordnung [AO]).^[4]

Administrative Procedures Law

The Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz (VwVfG), which was enacted in 1977,^[5] regulates the main administrative procedures of the federal government. It serves the purpose to ensure a treatment in accordance with the rule of law by the public authority. Furthermore, it contains the regulations for mass processes and expands the legal protection against the authorities. The VwVfG basically applies for the entire public administrative activities of federal agencies as well as federal state authorities, in case of making federal law. One of the central clause is § 35 VwVfG. It defines the administrative act, the most common form of action in which the public administration occurs against a citizen. The definition in § 35 [1] says, that an administration act is characterized by the following features:
It is an official act^[6] of an authority^[7] in the field of public law^[8] to resolve an individual case^[9] with effect to the outside.^[10]
§§ 36 – 39, §§ 58 – 59 and § 80 VwV––fG rule the structure and the necessary elements of the administrative act. § 48 and § 49 VwVfG have a high relevance in practice, as well. In these paragraphs, the prerequisites for redemption of an unlawful administration act (§ 48 VwVfG [2]) and withdrawal of a lawful administration act (§ 49 VwVfG [3]), are listed.^[11]

Other legal sources

Administration procedural law (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), which was enacted in 1960, rules the court procedures at the administrative court. The VwGO is divided into five parts, which are the constitution of the courts,^[12] action, remedies and retrial, costs and enforcement15 and final clauses and temporary arrangements.^[13]
In absence of a rule, the VwGO is supplemented by the code of civil procedure (Zivilprozessordnung [ZPO]) and the judicature act (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz [GVG]).^[14] In addition to the regulation of the administrative procedure, the VwVfG also constitutes the legal protection in administrative law beyond the court procedure. § 68 VwVGO rules the preliminary proceeding, called “Vorverfahren” or “Widerspruchsverfahren”,^[15] which is a stringent prerequisite for the administrative procedure, if an action for rescission or a writ of mandamus against an authority is aimed.^[16] The preliminary proceeding gives each citizen, feeling unlawfully mistreated by an authority, the possibility to object and to force a review of an administrative act without going to court. The prerequisites to open the public law remedy are listed in § 40 I VwGO. Therefore, it is necessary to have the existence of a conflict in public law^[17] without any constitutional aspects^[18] and no assignment to another jurisdiction.^[19]
The social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law are less important for the administrative law. They supplement the VwVfG and the VwGO in the fields of taxation and social legislation, such as social welfare or financial support for students (BaFÖG) etc.

Special administrative law

The special administrative law consists of various laws. Each special sector has its own law. The most important ones are the

• Town and Country Planning Code (Baugesetzbuch [BauGB])
• Federal Control of Pollution Act (Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz [BImSchG])
• Industrial Code (Gewerbeordnung [GewO])
• Police Law (Polizei- und Ordnungsrecht)
• Statute Governing Restaurants (Gaststättenrecht [GastG]).^[20]

In Germany, the highest administrative court for most matters is the federal administrative court Bundesverwaltungsgericht. There are federal courts with special jurisdiction in the fields of social security law (Bundessozialgericht) and tax law (Bundesfinanzhof).

This section requires expansion. (June 2008)

The Netherlands

In The Netherlands, administrative law provisions are usually contained in separate laws. There is however a single General Administrative Law Act ("Algemene wet bestuursrecht" or Awb) that applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision ('besluit') made by an administrative agency ('bestuursorgaan') within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful.
Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative "chamber" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State).
Before going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body who made it. This is called "bezwaar". This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court. Sometimes, instead of bezwaar, a different system is used called "administratief beroep" (administrative appeal). The difference with bezwaar is that administratief beroep is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision. Administratief beroep is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it. An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney ("officier van justitie"), after which the decision can be appealed in court.

Sweden

The Stenbockska Palace is the seat of the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden.

In Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considers only administrative law cases, and is completely separate from the system of general courts.^[21] This system has three tiers, with 12 county administrative courts (förvaltningsrätt) as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal (kammarrätt) as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden (Högsta Förvaltningsdomstolen) as the third tier.
Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system general administrative courts. Three of the administrative courts serve as migration courts (migrationsdomstol) with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal (Migrationsöverdomstolen).

Brazil

In Brazil, unlike most Civil-law jurisdictions, there is no specialized court or section to deal with administrative cases. In 1998, a constitutional reform, led by the government of the President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (art. 37 of Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency.

Chile

Main article: Law of Chile § Administrative law

The President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several Ministries or other authorities with ministerial rank. Each Ministry has one or more under-secretary that performs through public services the actual satisfaction of public needs. There is not a single specialized court to deal with actions against the Administrative entities, but instead there are several specialized courts and procedures of review.

People's Republic of China

Main article: Administrative law in the People's Republic of China

Administrative law in the People's Republic of China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s, the People's Republic of China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy and disciplinary committees for the Communist Party of China. However, many have argued that the usefulness of these laws is vastly inadequate in terms of controlling government actions, largely because of institutional and systemic obstacles like a weak judiciary, poorly trained judges and lawyers, and corruption.
In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行政检查条例) and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations (行政复议条例) were passed. Both regulations have since been amended and upgraded into laws. The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国家公务员暂行条例) changed the way government officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, and introduced a rotation system. In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国家赔偿法) was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law (行政处罚法) in 1996.

Ukraine

Main article: Ukrainian administrative law

As a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence, the administrative law of Ukraine is characterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline.^[22]

See also

• Constitutionalism
• Rule of law
• Rechtsstaat

References

1. Garner, James W. (April 1924). "French Administrative Law". The Yale Law Journal: 597–627.
2. Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht pp. 12–14
3. Galli, Rocco (2011). "Corso di diritto amministrativo". CEDAM.
4. Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht p. 148
5. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar No. 1 and 26
6. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No.59
7. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No.65
8. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No.70
9. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No. 118
10. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No. 124
11. Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht 161–163
12. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar pp. 1–94
13. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar p. 605,1517,1760,1882
14. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar §173 No. 1
15. Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht p. 211
16. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar §68 No.1
17. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar §40 No. 6
18. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar $40 No. 31
19. Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar § 40 No. 48
20. Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht
21. The Swedish courts, accessed on February 20, 2009
22. Administrative law of Ukraine nowadays (the beginning of the 21st century): monograph. Edited by Valentyn Galunko. – Kherson, 2010.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Administrative law.

Library resources about Administrative law

Resources in your library Resources in other libraries

• Davis, Kenneth Culp (1975). Administrative Law and Government. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.

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LW 202 : LAND LAW ---- UNIVERSITY OF DAR--ES--SALAAM, SCHOOL OF LAW

LW  202 : LAND   LAW.

INTRODUCTION:

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Land law is the form of law that deals with the rights to use, alienate, or exclude others from land. In many jurisdictions, these kinds of property are referred to as real estate or real property, as distinct from personal property. Land use agreements, including renting, are an important intersection of property and contract law. Encumbrance on the land rights of one, such as an easement, may constitute the land rights of another. Mineral rights and water rights are closely linked, and often interrelated concepts. Land rights are such a basic form of law that they develop even where there is no state to enforce them; for example, the claim clubs of the American West were institutions that arose organically to enforce the system of rules appurtenant to mining. Squatting, the occupation of land without ownership, is a globally ubiquitous.

Contents

• 1 National sovereignty
• 2 Land rights
• 3 Limits of national jurisdiction and sovereignty
• 4 Land rights and women
  • 4.1 India
  • 4.2 Uganda
• 5 See also
• 6 References

National sovereignty

Sovereignty, in common law jurisdictions, is often referred to as absolute title, radical title, or allodial title. Nearly all of these jurisdictions have a system of land registration, to record fee simple interests, and a land claim process to resolve disputes.

Land rights

Indigenous land rights are recognized by international law, as well as the national legal systems of common law and civil law countries. In common law jurisdictions, the land rights of indigenous peoples are referred to as aboriginal title. In customary law jurisdictions, customary land is the predominant form of land ownership.
Land reform refers to government policies that take and/or redistribute land, such as a land grant.
Land rights refer to the inalienable ability of individuals to freely obtain, utilise, and possess land at their discretion, as long as their activities on the land do not impede on other individuals’ rights.^[1] This is not to be confused with access to land, which allows individuals the use of land in an economic sense (i.e. farming). Instead, land rights address the ownership of land which provides security and increases human capabilities. When a person only has access to land, they are in constant threat of expulsion depending on the choices of the land owner, which limits financial stability.^[2]
Land rights are an integral part of Land Laws, as they socially enforce groups of individuals’ rights to own land in concurrence with the land laws of a nation. Land Law addresses the legal mandates set forth by a country in regards to land ownership, while land rights refer to the social acceptance of land ownership. Landesa takes the stance that although the law may advocate for equal access to land, land rights in certain countries and cultures may hinder a group’s right to actually own land.^[3] Laws are important, but they must be backed up by cultural tradition and social acceptance. Therefore, laws concerning land ownership and land rights of a country must be in agreement.
Globally, there has been an increased focus on land rights, as they are so pertinent to various aspects of development. According to Wickeri and Kalhan, land ownership can be a critical source of capital, financial security, food, water, shelter, and resources.^[4] The UN Global Land Tool organisation has found that rural landlessness is a strong predictor of poverty and hunger,^[5] and negatively impacts Empowerment and the realisation of Human rights.^[6] In order to home in on this critical problem of inadequate land rights, The Millennium Development Goal 7D strives to improve the lives of 100 million slum dwellers.^[7] This includes increased land rights for impoverished people, which will ultimately lead to a higher quality of life.^[8]
Although land rights are fundamental in achieving higher standards of living, certain groups of individuals are consistently left out of land ownership provisions. The law may provide access to land, however, cultural barriers and poverty traps limit minority groups’ ability to own land.^[9] In order to reach equality, these groups must obtain adequate land rights that are both socially and legally recognised.

Limits of national jurisdiction and sovereignty

Limits of national jurisdiction and sovereignty

Outer space (including Earth orbits; the Moon and other celestial bodies, and their orbits)
national airspace		territorial waters airspace	contiguous zone airspace[citation needed]	international airspace
land territory surface	internal waters surface	territorial waters surface	contiguous zone surface	Exclusive Economic Zone surface	international waters surface
internal waters		territorial waters	Exclusive Economic Zone		international waters
land territory underground		Continental Shelf surface			extended continental shelf surface		international seabed surface
		Continental Shelf underground			extended continental shelf underground		international seabed underground

  full national jurisdiction and sovereignty

  restrictions on national jurisdiction and sovereignty

  international jurisdiction per common heritage of mankind

Land rights and women

Several scholars argue that women’s lack of sufficient land rights negatively affects their immediate families and the larger community, as well.^[10][11][12] With land ownership, women can develop an income and allocate this income more fairly within the household.^[13][14] Tim Hanstad claims that providing sufficient land rights for women is beneficial because:^[15]

• Women are less likely to contract and spread HIV/AIDS as they do not have to resort to prostitution
• Women are less likely to be victims of Domestic violence
• Children are more likely to get an education and stay in school longer
• Women may have better access to Microcredit

In many parts of the world, women have access to land in order to farm and cultivate the land; however, there are traditions and cultural norms which bar women from inheriting or purchasing land.^[16][17] This puts women in a place of dependence on their husbands, brothers, or fathers for their livelihood and shelter.^[18] Should there be an illness, domestic violence, or death in the family, women would be left landless and unable to either grow crops for food, or rent land for profit. Land ownership for women is a crucial form of security and income, increasing Empowerment and decreasing Poverty.

India

Kanakalatha Mukund makes the important point that although women in India have the legal right to own land, very few actually do as a result of the patriarchal practices which dominate the nation.^[19] Up until recently, Indian women have been left out of laws regarding the distribution of public land and were forced to rely on the small possibility of obtaining private land from their families.^[20] Inheritance laws which cater towards men are one of the key issues behind inequality in land rights. According to Bina Agarwal, land ownership defines social status and political power in the household and in the village, shaping relationships and creating family dynamics.^[21] Therefore, inheritance of land automatically puts men above women both in the household, and in the community. Without political pull in the village, and with limited bargaining powers within the household, women lack the voice to advocate for their own rights.^[22]
Another issue with land rights in India is that they leave women completely dependent on the lives of their husbands. A study by Bina Agarwal found that in West Bengal, prosperous families turn destitute when the male head of the household dies, as women are not permitted to take over their husband’s land.^[23] Also, due to cultural tradition, the higher the status of the woman, the less likely she is to have any developed skills that would be useful in finding work.^[24] These women are forced to beg for food and shelter once their husbands die because they have not been allowed to gain work experience.^[25]
Bina Agarwal argues that land ownership significantly decreases the chance of domestic violence against Indian women.^[26] Owning property elevates women to a higher status within the household, allowing more equality and bargaining power. In addition, owning property separately from their husbands allowed women an opportunity of escape from abusive relationships.^[27] Agarwal concluded that the prospect of a safe shelter outside of the main household decreases the longevity of domestic violence.^[28]
Land rights are critical for women in India due to the heavily patriarchal society in which they live. Cultural perspectives play a key role in the acceptance of equality within land ownership. Women owning land ultimately benefits the household and society as a whole.^[29]
The most recent advance towards equality in land rights in India was the Hindu Succession Act of 2005. This act aimed to remove the gender discrimination which was present in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. In the new amendment, daughters and sons have equal rights to obtain land from their parents.^[30] This act was both a legally and socially important move for women’s rights to land ownership. Not only did it legally mandate equality in land succession, it also validated women’s roles as equals in society.

Uganda

Uganda’s 1995 Constitution enforces equality between men and women, including the acquisition and ownership of land.^[31] However, research from Women’s Land Link Africa reveals that women remain excluded from land ownership due to customs and deeply ingrained cultural habits.^[32] Even when women save up enough money to purchase land, the land is signed in their husband’s name, while women sign as the witness.^[33] Inheritance practices are a particular obstacle which reduces women empowerment, as well. Land is passed down through male lineage which reinforces women’s exclusion from land ownership.^[34] Another detriment to equality, pointed out by Women’s Land Link Africa, is that women lack sufficient knowledge about the rights they have under the law to own land.^[35] Rural, illiterate women do not even have access to the new constitution which guarantees them land rights.
Although the 1995 Constitution provides for equality between men and women, there are still gaps in the law which affect women’s rights to land. The law protects the rights to land of wives in marriage; however, it does not address the needs of widows or divorcees.^[36] Consequentially, these women are left landless and without the protection land offers. Also, women have a difficult time taking cases to court due to corruption and expensive trials.^[37] The trials concerning land take so long to process that many women do not even attempt to seek legal assistance.
Women’s Land Link Africa provides suggestions to alleviate inequality in land ownership. Rural women can be educated about their rights through radio campaigns, community discussions, educational outreach programs, and public forums.^[38] The cultural nuances must be addressed in policies and community leaders can be educated about inclusion of minority groups.^[39] Also, the law itself can address the rights of widows and divorcees in addition to the rights of married women.^[40]

See also

• English land law
• Split estate
• The Land is Ours
• International Land Coalition
• Struggle for the Land

References

1. Adi, D.N. (2009). Critical Mass Representation in Uganda. 1-38.
2. Adi, D.N. (2009). Critical Mass Representation in Uganda. 1-38.
3. Hanstad, T. (2010). Secure Land Rights. Landesa.
4. Wickeri, E. & Kalhan, A. (2009). Lands Rights Issues in International Human Rights Laws. Institute of Human Rights and Business.
5. Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (2009), Housing and Property Restitution for Refugees and Displaced Persons, 3-5.
6. UN Global Land Tool Network (2010) http://www.unhabitat.org/content.asp?cid=2798&catid=283&typeid=24&subMenuId=0
7. Millennium Development Goal Monitor: Tracking the Mellennium Development Goals. (2010) http://www.mdgmonitor.org/goal7.cfm
8. Wickeri, E. & Kalhan, A. (2009). Lands Rights Issues in International Human Rights Laws. Institute of Human Rights and Business.
9. Hanstad, T. (2010). Secure Land Rights. Rural Development Institute.
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12. Agarwal, B. (1994). “A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia”. Cambridge University Press.
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14. Deere, C.D., & Doss, C. R. (2006). “Gender and the Distribution of Wealth in Developing Countries. World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1-27.
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22. Agarwal, B. (1994). “A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia”. Cambridge University Press.
23. Agarwal, B. (1994). “A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia”. Cambridge University Press.
24. Agarwal, B. (1994). “A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia”. Cambridge University Press.
25. Agarwal, B. (1994). “A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia”. Cambridge University Press.
26. Agarwal, B. (2005). “Marital Violence, Human Development, and Women’s Property Status in India” World Development. 823-850.
27. Agarwal, B. (2005). “Marital Violence, Human Development, and Women’s Property Status in India” World Development. 823-850.
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30. Hindu Succession Act 2005. September 5, 2005. http://www.hrln.org/admin/issue/subpdf/HSA_Amendment_2005.pdf
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33. Women’s Land Link Africa. (2010). “The Impact of National Land Policy and Land Reform On Women in Uganda”. WLLA. 1-8.
34. Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions. (2010). “Uganda-Women’s Land Rights: The Gap Between Policy and Practice”. http://www.cohre.org/news/press-releases/uganda-women-s-land-rights-the-gap-between-policy-and-practice
35. Women’s Land Link Africa. (2010). “The Impact of National Land Policy and Land Reform On Women in Uganda”. WLLA. 1-8.
36. Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions. (2010). “Uganda-Women’s Land Rights: The Gap Between Policy and Practice”. http://www.cohre.org/news/press-releases/uganda-women-s-land-rights-the-gap-between-policy-and-practice
37. Women’s Land Link Africa. (2010). “The Impact of National Land Policy and Land Reform On Women in Uganda”. WLLA. 1-8.
38. Women’s Land Link Africa. (2010). “The Impact of National Land Policy and Land Reform On Women in Uganda”. WLLA. 1-8.
39. Women’s Land Link Africa. (2010). “The Impact of National Land Policy and Land Reform On Women in Uganda”. WLLA. 1-8.
40. Women’s Land Link Africa. (2010). “The Impact of National Land Policy and Land Reform On Women in Uganda”. WLLA. 1-8.

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